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Editions of Books—In several instances, the LXX and the MT seem to represent different editions (recensions) of the same book. In these cases, the LXX differs from MT not in small textual details, but in groups of related features that reflect a different stage in the literary development of the book than MT: the short (and somewhat different) text of Jeremiah—in this case LXX is joined by two Qumran scrolls‒, the short text of Ezekiel, the different text of Joshua, and sundry shorter or different texts. The LXX versions probably preceded those of MT in these cases. In other cases, the Hebrew texts underlying the LXX were in the nature of exegetical texts commenting upon MT (1 Kings, Esther, and Daniel).

      The MT in Sum. The upshot of this analysis is that MT is a mixed bag containing units that reflect a conservative tradition and those that do not, units that seem to be later than the LXX (Joshua, Jeremiah, Ezekiel), and units that are earlier than the Vorlage of the LXX (1 Kings, Esther, and Daniel). Each book of scripture was produced at a different time by a different scribe, reflecting his personal character.

      2.8 Variation in Editions of MT

      Although the vast majority of Bible editions present the consonantal text of MT with the Masoretic pointing, they actually differ from one another in many small details.⁵⁷ Such differences occur either because these editions are based on different medieval Masoretic manuscripts or because modern editors have differing conceptions for how to represent these manuscripts.⁵⁸

      In modern times critical Orthodox scholars realized that it is difficult to speak about a single Masoretic Text, since the medieval text of MT is known in many almost—but not quite—identical manuscripts. These small complications were accepted as reality by Menahem Cohen, a specialist in the Masorah from Bar-Ilan University, and editor of Bar Ilan’s critical Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) series, HaKeter.⁵⁹

      2.8.1 The Leningrad and Aleppo Codices

      Because the medieval texts differ very slightly among one another, scholars use ancient MT codices as a yardstick for comparison. The oldest source of MT is the Aleppo Codex (Keter Aram Tzova) from approximately 925 CE. While it is the closest text to the Ben Asher school of Masoretes, it survived in an incomplete form, as it lacks almost all of the Torah. For this reason, many scholars prefer to use the oldest complete manuscript of MT, namely the Codex Leningrad B 19^A (codex L) from 1009 CE.

      2.8.2 Scholarly Editions

      MT is also in the center of scholarly critical editions (sometimes called scientific editions), which provide ancient variants to the text of MT, and these also correct the biblical text when no acceptable readings have been preserved. (These suggestions are named »emendations«).

      Remarkably, although in principle the critical editions remove our thinking from MT by discussing other versions in the apparatus, in practice they make MT even more central than before because they compete with each other in producing ever more precise versions of the Leningrad or Aleppo Codex. The Leningrad Codex is at the center of the Biblia Hebraica series,⁶⁰ while the Aleppo Codex is the base for the edition of the Hebrew University Bible Project.

      2.8.3 Translations: Ancient and Modern

      Skilled persons have been translating the Bible for more than two millennia. With the exception of the LXX translation, some version of the (proto-)MT has been the basis of virtually every translation of the Hebrew Bible,⁶¹ whether those translations were Jewish or not. Since the proto-MT was the central Jewish text from the first century CE onwards, several ancient translations were based on that text, reflecting minor differences. This is the case for the Latin Vulgate translation, subsequently used by the Catholic Church, and the Syriac Peshitta subsequently used by the Syrian Orthodox Churches (although the latter deviates occasionally from the proto-MT). With some exceptions, especially in the Qumran Targum of Job from cave 11 and the Samaritan Targum, all the Targumim reflect the proto-MT, and this is also the case for the early medieval Arabic translation (tafsir) of parts of Scripture by Saʿadia Gaon (882–942).

      Of the ancient translations, the Targumim especially came to be identified with Judaism since they reflected, more or less officially, the exegetical views of the rabbis on the Bible. Most of the (later) Targumim offered expanded readings, as opposed to translations.

      2.8.4 Modern Translations

      The influence of the Masoretic Text is so pervasive that most modern translations reflect that text, either exactly or approximately, even though access to alternative versions of the text is now readily available.

      NJPS

      The translation of the Jewish Publication Society (NJPS)⁶² is a good example of the trend of adhering to MT. More than most translations, the NJPS translation represents the exact text of MT except for those cases in which it considers MT textually corrupt (that is, resulting from an error). In such rare cases, the editors provide editorial notes.⁶³

      Even when claiming to represent MT, this ideal cannot always be achieved. Thus, when encountering textual problems, NJPS uses several techniques when not providing a straightforward translation of MT. For example, it often playfully manipulates the English translation of textually difficult words to create an acceptable meaning (see, e.g., Ezek. 10:2; Josh 10:39). NJPS produces a smooth translation by reversing the elements in the Ezekiel verse.⁶⁴ The translation does not represent the difficulty of the Hebrew.

      In some especially difficult cases, NJPS includes Hebrew variants (non-MT readings) in the translation, against its principle of always representing MT; this also is accompanied by a textual note. A famous crux in the MT text is Cain’s missing speech—Gen 4:8. The Hebrew, wayomer qayin ʾel hevel ʾaḥiv (»Cain said to his brother Abel«) is not problematic by itself. But Cain’s actual words are not cited, so this becomes a textually difficult passage. The missing words, probably included in an earlier text but lost in transmission, are preserved in the ancient versions, as mentioned in a note in NJPS. The ellipsis in NJPS »Cain said to his brother Abel … and« reflects an unusual technique attempting to overcome this problem. The resulting translation is artificial, apparently close to MT, but in fact far removed from it.

      Remarkably, a few confessional translations, such as NIV,⁶⁵ are closer to MT than NJPS, as they present a literal translation that transfers the linguistic or contextual problems of MT to the translation.

      Other Modern Translations

      Most modern translations deviate more from MT than NJPS, especially when the translators experienced difficulty with the text of MT. In such cases they adopt details from other textual sources. This practice is usually named an eclectic presentation of the text of the Hebrew Bible, that is, the modern translation chooses from among the textual sources the reading that best represents the presumably original reading, usually adopting readings found in the Septuagint, and in recent years, from the Dead Sea Scrolls as well.

      Nevertheless, MT is the main basis of these translations; when they adopt a reading from another source, they sometimes notify the reader in a note, but more often they do not. These modern translations thus amount to the reconstruction of the original text of the Bible in translation. Translators do not consider this procedure problematic; they feel they are translating MT and occasionally correct its text when to the best of their judgment they are reconstructing the best version imaginable.

      2.8.5 Translation Fashions

      An analysis of the textual background of the modern translations shows that we witness passing fashions in the translation of the biblical text. Different tendencies in the inclusion of non-Masoretic readings in the translations are visible throughout the decade. In the words of Stephen Daley:

      English translations from

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