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they may procrastinate until they see the utility of completing the task at hand, or until the time pressure increases sufficiently. That is, individuals are more likely to complete tasks that are valued and that can be achieved, and are also more likely to put off tasks that are difficult and undervalued. Individuals prefer large and immediate rewards, and thus will procrastinate on unpleasant tasks with rewards in the distant future. Temporal motivation theory, then, suggests that students' motivations are strongly influenced by what they think is important, whether they believe they can succeed, and what they believe they can accomplish within a reasonable time. Schmidt, Dolis, and Tolli (2009) suggest that “temporal motivation theory may help further the understanding of the impact of time, and particularly deadlines, on dynamic attention allocation” (p. 707).

To provide an example of how this unfolds in a college classroom, when a student has one month to study before the final exam, the student has to choose how to allocate the time available. The student, for example, may have to choose between studying or socializing. Thus, the options for time allocation are in competition. The student wants to socialize, but the student also wants a good grade on the final. The reward of studying is not immediate; thus, at the beginning of the student's study period, the motivation to study may be lower than the motivation to socialize. However, as the study period diminishes from several weeks to several days, the motivation to study will (one hopes) surpass the motivation to socialize (Steel, 2007).

TABLE 2.3. Students' Subjective Experiences

      Source: Adapted from Brophy (2004), pp. 19–20.

Students' Subjective Experiences Related to the Expectancy and Value Aspects of Task Engagement
If a student…		anticipated implications prior to task engagement are …	anticipated reactions during task engagement are …
fears or expects failure	Affect	Apathy, resignation, resentment of forced participation.	Anxiety, embarrassment, fear of failure.
	Cognition	Perception that there is no realistic chance to earn a satisfactory grade.	Task focus is “invaded” by perception of confusion, failure, helplessness.
expects to succeed	Affect	Excitement	Satisfaction as skills or insights develop; pride in craftsmanship and successful performance.
	Cognition	Recognition that one can complete task with reasonable effort. Focus on meeting stated performance criteria.	Perception of progress toward goals; focus on one's developing knowledge and skill.
does not value the task	Affect	Alienation, resistance.	Anger, dread.
	Cognition	Perceptions of conflict between what the task represents and one's self-concept, gender role identification, etc.	Tasks focus is “invaded” by resentment, awareness of being coerced into unpleasant, pointless activity.
values the task	Affect	Energized, eager to learn.	Enjoyment, pleasure, engagement in the task is a reward in its own right.
	Cognition	Recognition that the task is a sub goal related to attainment of important future goals. Focus on the “relevant” aspects of the learning.	Concentration, “flow.” Metacognitive awareness of what the task requires and how one is responding to it. Focus on the academic content when learning and on the quality of the product when performing.

The value × expectancy and temporal motivation theories outline constructs important to our growing understanding of student motivation, particularly when considered together, and the implications for classroom practice are fairly straightforward. Basically, teachers can increase student motivation by taking steps to increase the value of the learning to students and helping students hold optimistic and positive expectations about their own ability to succeed as well as focusing on class pacing, and by creating reasonable deadlines for learning tasks.

Synthesis of Motivation Theories

What all of the theories on motivation suggest is that student perceptions affect their willingness to learn. If they feel they are helpless, then motivation is decreased, whereas if they are confident, they are more likely to be willing to try. If they believe they are controlled, motivation is decreased, whereas if they feel autonomy, they are more motivated for learning. Finally, if students feel bored, they are unmotivated, whereas if they are interested in the content or the process of learning, they are more likely to be motivated for learning. Pugh (2019) has a useful overview of some of the big ideas for motivation, and we have summarized the ideas we find most salient for student engagement in Table 2.4.

Conclusion

Motivation is the portal to engagement. An unmotivated student has “checked out” emotionally and mentally from the learning process. Students who are motivated to learn, however, will actively seek out the information and understandings that constitute engaged learning. Just as a teacher can enjoy a teaching nirvana when a classroom is filled with students who are genuinely motivated to learn, it can be teaching hell when trying to work with students who are apathetic, bored, or even hostile; who are so compulsively obsessed with grades that they badger us incessantly to improve theirs on every assignment; or who seem deliberately to take on strategies that are self-defeating. Understanding the complexities that underlie motivation can guide us in our efforts to set up conditions that enhance students' eagerness to learn. This is a first and critical step toward increasing student engagement.

TABLE 2.4. Summary Table of Key Ideas from Motivation Theories

	Continua of feelings
	Helpless ⇔ Confident	Controlled ⇔ Self-directed	Bored ⇔ Interested
Related theories	Attribution theory Self-efficacy theory Self-worth theory Expectancy × value theory	Self-determination theory	Expectancy × value theory

Chapter 3 Engagement and Active Learning

      ALTHOUGH THE TERMS teaching and learning are typically paired, those of us who teach know that students don't always learn. As a thoughtful colleague once said, “Saying ‘I taught

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