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by a society that can be inhospitable to women. Thus, the understanding of psychological distress is shifted, and those symptoms that might be seen as “disruptive problems” in one lens may be viewed as “survival mechanisms” through the feminist lens.

      6 Regardless of their basis, oppression of any type is acknowledged and recognized and the connections and interrelationships between them are explored and addressed in therapy.

      Feminist Therapy: Not for Women Only

      Although feminist therapy arose out of the movements to forward women’s equality, this form of therapy is also useful when working with virtually all clients, as each of us bring with us an intersectional identity (Wolf, Williams, Darby, Herald, & Schultz, 2018). In 2000, Root introduced the construct of intersectional identities; this construct expanded the notion that gender alone could account for different experiences in a patriarchal society.

      In essence, the benefits of this clinical orientation are found in the way clients are viewed in context and in relation to other entities in their world—not just as isolated individuals with stand-alone, idiosyncratic problems. Additionally, the therapy process is described as gender fair, meaning that language chosen is gender fair and all genders are treated with the same level of respect (Worell & Remer, 2003). Feminist therapy is flexible and multicultural, making it applicable to all individuals, regardless of their unique, diverse identities. It focuses on interaction between the individual and the environment. It also takes a lifespan perspective that honors the development and change that humans exhibit as they grow, learn, and mature. The thread that runs through all aspects of feminist thought and feminist therapy is the drive toward client empowerment.

      What Does Empowerment Look Like?

      Feminist clinicians desire to empower clients to discover and articulate their therapeutic goals as well as empower clients to work toward these goals. While most of us would say that we “know empowerment when we see it,” Worell (1993) developed a model that identified ten specific behaviors that would be present as evidence of empowerment as a woman took control of her own well-being. These included the following: self-evaluation; comfort–distress ratio (comfort would increase while feelings of distress would decrease); gender- and culture-role awareness; personal control/self-efficacy; self-nurturance; problem-solving skills; assertiveness; resource access; gender and cultural flexibility; and social activism. Brown (2018) further specified that empowerment is, in essence, liberating clients from their own internalized forms of oppression in order for them to gain power to intentionally confront their external obstacles.

      Taken together, these ten behaviors inform a model in which an individual is able to perceive both the influences of the external culture on her beliefs and behaviors while acknowledging her own role in choosing to reject harmful cultural expectations and in practicing appropriate self-care. Each of the ten areas of assessment affirms the belief that all clients are capable of being responsible for their own well-being, which can be likened to the perspective of Carl Rogers and client-centered therapy (Proctor & Napier, 2004; Wolter-Gustafson, 2004). Client-centered therapy focuses on helping clients become more congruent; congruency exists when one’s experiencing of the world matches one’s sense of self. Feminist therapy has a similar focus in helping clients reach empowerment as a way to feel in control of their own lives within a cultural paradigm over which they hold little control. Power is not perceived of as an “all or nothing” construct within feminist thought. Power exists on a continuum and even when a client feels that they possess no power, clinicians help clients to understand ways they do hold power, even if its magnitude is not yet as significant as the client may wish (Brown, 2018).

      The Four Realms of Personal Power

      Brown (2018, p. 41) described four realms in which individuals function and hold power: (1) somatic, (2) intrapersonal/intrapsychic, (3) interpersonal/social-contextual, and (4) spiritual/existential. Somatic power is related to the body and is marked by feelings of being “safe” within one’s own skin; satisfied with the body’s size and shape; appreciative of the body in whatever form it takes, regardless of abilities; and experiencing compassion toward one’s physical form. Intrapersonal/intrapsychic power is marked by knowing what one thinks and the presence of flexibility, rather than rigidity, in thoughts and feelings; being able to trust one’s own intuition and to believe in the messages sent by one’s feelings; and being able to be present in the moment, experience powerful emotions, and not fall into “numbness” as a way to cope. Interpersonal and social-contextual power is effected by being able to establish and maintain healthy relationships with others and being able to maintain a healthy balance between independence and dependence. Spiritual and existential power includes the ability to make meaning of life, understand the way one fits into the larger scheme of things, feel that one’s life has purpose, and be able to engage in creativity and fantasy while maintaining a strong grounding in reality.

      Feminist therapists are able to facilitate clients’ awareness of these various realms while helping them to recognize the ways they hold and can enact power in each realm. Most clients seek counseling as a “last resort” when they have exhausted all other possible solutions to their concerns. Clients often feel powerless at this point, and rather than being cast as the “source” of a client’s solution, feminist counselors help their clients recognize the ways they can use their own power to find their solutions. It is important to consider not just empowerment but other practices common to the theory.

      Feminist Therapy in Practice

      Empowerment is the most essential goal for clients, but Worell and Remer (2003) outlined eight additional related goals of feminist therapy:

       Become aware of your own experience of gender role socialization.

       Recognize the internalized messages you’ve been taught and replace these with self-enhancing, positive messages.

       Gain awareness of the ways sexist and oppressive societal beliefs and practices negatively influence you.

       Develop a set of skills that will allow you to make changes to the environment in which you function.

       Restructure existing institutions to eliminate any discriminatory practices they support.

       Acknowledge and evaluate the impact that social factors have on your life.

       Establish a sense of personal and social power.

       Acknowledge and value the power of relationships and connection to others.

       Trust your own experience and intuition.

      As you reflect on these practices, it is clear that they are as applicable to men as they are to women. In fact, these may be especially relevant for men who are employed in positions that are strongly associated with masculinity, such as law enforcement or the armed forces (Carr & McKernan, 2015). When forced to abide by stringent gender role expectations, some men may suffer psychological distress brought on by the hyper-masculine environment. Feminist-oriented clinicians can provide a space where men can explore contradictory or ambiguous feelings about their actions. Examples of populations that might benefit from feminist-centered work include veterans dealing with PTSD (Carr & McKernan, 2015) or men who feel constrained or overwhelmed by the culturally enforced gender role expectations (Silver, Levant, & Gonzalez, 2018). The use of this theory has more applications than counselors may realize, and depending on the client, the therapist selects appropriate techniques that may be pulled from a variety of other therapeutic orientations.

      Feminist Therapy Techniques

      With the focus that feminist clinicians place on individuals and the client’s unique needs, it is likely not a surprise that there is not a standard catalog of techniques and interventions from which a feminist therapist draws a treatment plan. In fact, it is the relationship between therapist and client that is likely the most predictable aspect of feminist therapy. According to Brown (2018), the feminist

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