ТОП просматриваемых книг сайта:
Counseling the Contemporary Woman. Suzanne Degges-White
Читать онлайн.Название Counseling the Contemporary Woman
Год выпуска 0
isbn 9781538123621
Автор произведения Suzanne Degges-White
Жанр Управление, подбор персонала
Издательство Ingram
Sexual Orientation
Previous views of same-gender attractions and relationships as sexually deviant and inherently pathological have been superseded by a more liberal view, emphasizing personal relationships (e.g., “love is love”) and biological determination (e.g., “born this way”). Neither approach fully encompasses the breadth and fluidity of affectional/sexual orientation, which includes sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies, emotional preference, social preference, same-gender or other-gender lifestyle, and self-identity (American Institute of Bisexuality, 2014). To this, there is also a political dynamic that had largely been ignored, particularly in the context of women’s experience. Rich (1980) argued compulsory heterosexuality for women is rooted in a deeply political system of sexism and patriarchy that assumes heterosexuality for women and focuses on the function that women serve to men. Diamond (2005) suggested that media representations of same-gender affectional or sexual behavior are depoliticized, exoticized for the male gaze, and complicit in erasing women’s bisexuality. Many models of sexual orientation identity development focus on individual awareness and experiences in self-labeling. In contrast, McCarn and Fassinger’s (1996) lesbian identity development model emphasizes relational factors that parallel and influence individual identity, addressing individual, relational, and political factors of a lesbian identity. Because the language of affectional/sexual orientation is gender based (e.g., lesbian used for women whose dominant attractions are to other women), trans and gender-variant women commonly experience marginalization and exclusionary practices from cisgender individuals in queer communities (Chang & Singh, 2016; Farmer & Byrd, 2015).
Indigenous Heritage
Indigenous heritage reflects a variety of cultural elements, including race, ethnicity, national origin, as well as migration and colonization histories. Issues of law, sovereignty, and land uniquely affect indigenous women, particularly with sexual violence. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC; Smith et al., 2018) reports that nearly one in three women has experienced sexual violence involving some form of physical contact. In this already high number, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) Policy Research Center (2013) reported that native women have the highest rates of sexual assault among all U.S. groups, with women on tribal lands most vulnerable. Further, perpetrators of sexual violence against native women are more likely to be nonnative, which is unique to this population as most sexual violence crimes are intraracial. This is further complicated by tribes’ lack of authority to prosecute nonnative people who commit crimes on tribal land, with U.S. attorneys declining to prosecute many violent cases (NCAI Policy Research Center, 2013). Thus, positionality as a native woman is impacted by the privilege of many nonnative perpetuators, limiting their recourse in the criminal justice system.
National Origin
National origin is often overlooked as a critical diversity factor in women’s experience. Immigrants can occupy different statuses, including naturalized citizens, permanent residents, refugees, asylees, temporary visa holders, and undocumented immigrants. The reasons people immigrate vary considerably, and the sociopolitical context of host countries and possible premigration trauma (e.g., witnessing violence, unexpected death of a loved one) pose significant mental health risks for refugees and immigrants with different racial cultural identities from different areas of the world (Sangalang et al., 2018; Shishehgar, Gholizadeh, Digiacomo, Green, & Davidson, 2017). Immigrant and refugee women often face differential risks of violence and trauma. In a study of refugee and undocumented immigrant women, Goodman, Vesely, Letiecq, and Cleaveland (2017) identified three trauma types among participants, including sociopolitical context surrounding immigration, trauma related to their political and citizens status, and postmigration trauma, some of these gender based in nature, including rape and witnessing sexual assault. Common stressors include family separation, language barriers, employment, and economic and situational stressors (Goodman et al., 2017; Shishehgar et al., 2017). The multitude of separations and disruptions in relationships can have deleterious effects; however, the importance of familial relationships, connection with similar others, and social service agencies were identified as contributing to resilience (Goodman et al., 2017).
Implications for Counseling and Advocacy
Intersectionality has been used in a variety of ways, conceptualizing individual experiences (Bowleg, 2013; Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008) but also large-scale issues such as disparities in public health (Bowleg, 2012). Intersectionality goes beyond simply identifying interactions of oppressive systems and identities; rather, it is designed as a tool to conceptualize complex issues. Clearly, women are differentially affected by systems of social inequality at the individual, group, and community levels. Thus, it is important to recognize how counselors can best intervene in their professional roles. An important addition to the MSJCC is balancing individual counseling interventions and advocacy interventions (Ratts et al., 2016). Counselors are well trained for individual and group counseling; however, training often fails to prepare counselors for advocacy at multiple levels. The ACA Advocacy Competencies (Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek, 2003) laid the groundwork for counseling advocacy with and for marginalized groups. Bridging the Multicultural Counseling Competencies (Arredondo et al., 1996; Sue et al., 1992) and the Advocacy Competencies, the MSJCC delineate counseling and advocacy interventions using a socioecological model that addresses intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, public policy, and international and global affairs (Ratts et al., 2015).
Individual counseling primarily focuses on the unique, individual characteristics of the client; however, an intersectionality perspective takes this a step further by contextualizing these experiences in a socioecological context. Culturally relevant counseling strategies can include the use of empowerment theories that fully integrate cultural perspectives and context. Counseling approaches, including feminist therapy, narrative therapy, and relational cultural therapy (Comstock, 2005; Crethar, Torres Rivera, & Nash, 2008; Jordan, 2010; White & Epston, 1990), intentionally focus on social construction of knowledge and experience, highlighting issues of power, agency, relationships, and the sociopolitical nature of experience. These strategies can be woven into counseling practice with all women, addressing each client’s interactions of privileged and marginalized identities. Counselors should also assist clients in recognizing power structures and controlling images, as these can impact views of self and create psychosocial barriers in mental health treatment (Abrams et al., 2016; Caplan & Whittemore, 2013; Dougherty et al., 2016; Lara-Cinisomo et al., 2018).
Counselors too need to be aware of the multiple, layered cultural factors they identify with and how they are affected. To this, counselors must add an understanding of their clients’ cultural identities and the interactions in the counseling relationship (Ratts et al., 2016; Watts-Jones, 2010). Further, counselors must be able to recognize culturally laden and gender-biased influences in counseling assessment and diagnosis (Katz, 1985; Marecek & Garvey, 2013). Counselors are encouraged to initiate these conversations through broaching behaviors using multicultural and social justice counseling competencies as a foundation (Day-Vines et al., 2007). Counselors can then assist clients in deconstructing internalized oppression, rejecting cultural stereotypes, and developing their own, culturally relevant meaning of womanhood.
There is a long history of advocacy for clients in the mental health professions (Kiselica & Robinson, 2001), but there is also a history of marginalization and discrimination against people of color, women, and other minoritized groups (Jackson, 1995; Marecek & Garvey, 2013; Sue & Sue, 1977). To fully shift the profession, counselors must understand minority stress, the impact of social conditions on wellness, and client access to social and economic resources. Instead of adopting an individual advocacy lens for individual clients in a single setting, there is growing momentum with counselors focusing on larger systemic issues, such as the