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neurologic examination, with only then careful reflection on the significance of the findings, that successful and accurate diagnoses are made.

       If all else fails, examine the patient again!

Region Evaluation Sites evaluated Points to emphasize
Adult Neonate <2 weeks
Head Behavior Forebrain History and owner’s understanding Seizures, especially mild and focal. VIDEO Subtle asymmetry in menace and nasal sensation Quick adjustment ~2–7 days Paralytic state with cradling Partial seizures—just face, jaw
Mentation/sensorium Forebrain Midbrain Response to environment Sleep attacks more common than epilepsy Cardiovascular syncope very rare Adjustment ~24 h
Head posture and movement Neck Forebrain—head and neck turn Vestibular—head tilt Tremor—check eyeballs Stiff/twisted neck Head tilt (VIII) verses head turn (forebrain) Head tremor—cerebellar Head/neck ataxia—cerebellar/spinal Head shaking—trigeminal Flexed head posture and ataxic movements normal
Cranial innervation CN II – XII Brainstem Cervical sympathetic supply Evaluate regions of head Fundic examination Repeat test for subtle asymmetries Reevaluate when totally relaxed Menace deficit <7 days Eye rotation dorsomedial
Body Neck and forelimbs C1–T2 Particularly asymmetry Only flexor reflex useful Hopping All reflexes Hyperreflexia normal Crossed extension normal
Trunk and hindlimbs T3–S2 L4—femoral n. L5—cranial gluteal n. L6–S1—sciatic n. Particularly asymmetry Patellar reflexes usefulFlexor reflex useful All reflexes Hyperreflexia Crossed extensor reflex Extensor thrust response
Tail Ca1+ Extension and flexion
Perineum, anus, rectum, and bladder S1–5 S1–2 is common fracture site
Gait and posture ORTHOPEDIC PROBLEMS! Neuromusculoskeletal VIDEO! Shoulder and hip atrophy common Possible analgesic trial SEPSIS!
Positional CP deficits Brainstem, spinal cord, and sensory nerves Manual placement of feet/limbs noncontributory Prematurity
Extensor weakness Brainstem, spinal cord, and PNS Especially final motor neuron lesion Extensor strength dominant
Flexor weakness Brainstem, spinal cord, and PNS
Ataxia Spinal ataxia Irregular position and placement
Cerebellar ataxia Hypermetria characteristic; F > H Normal to degree
Vestibular gait Crouched posture Deliberate (predictable) stepping Wide‐based, staggering gait Normal to degree

      CP, conscious proprioception; CN, cranial nerve.

Cranial nerve Major function Normal reflex/response/assessment
I Olfactory Sense of smell Challenging—most odors also stimulate CNV
II Optic Afferent pathway for vision and light Menace response. Pupillary light reflex. Swinging light test Dazzle response
III Oculomotor Pupillary constriction Upper eyelid levator muscle Extraocular muscles Pupillary light reflex Induced eyeball movement Medial movement of globe Ptosis rarely apparent
IV Trochlear Extraocular muscle (dorsal oblique) Ventrolateral rotation of globe
V Trigeminal Sensory Sensory to head, face, and tongue Ear, eyelid, and lip (facial) reflexes Pain perception: head, nasal septum, and rostral tongue
Motor Motor to muscles of mastication Chewing, jaw tone, and muscle mass (temporalis, masseter, and pterygoid)
VI Abducens Extraocular muscle (retractor oculi) Extraocular muscle (lateral

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