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charged protons (dark blue) and electrically neutral neutrons (light blue) surrounded by an electron cloud (red shades) in which negatively charged electrons move in orbitals about the nucleus."/>

      2.1.1 The nucleus, atomic number, atomic mass number, and isotopes

      The nucleus of atoms is composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons bound together by a strong force. Ninety‐two fundamentally different kinds of atoms called elements have been discovered in the natural world. More than 25 additional elements have been created synthetically in laboratory experiments during the past century. Each element is characterized by the number of protons in its nucleus. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (Z). The atomic number is typically represented by a subscript number to the lower left of the element symbol. The 92 naturally occurring elements range from hydrogen (Z = 1) through uranium (Z = 92). Hydrogen (1H) is characterized by having one proton in its nucleus. Every atom of uranium (92U) contains 92 protons in its nucleus. The atomic number is the unique property that distinguishes the atoms of each element from atoms of all other elements.

Schematic illustration of (a) nuclear configurations of the three common isotopes of hydrogen. (b) Nuclear configurations of the three common isotopes of oxygen.

      The general isotope symbol for the nucleus of an atom expresses its atomic number to the lower left of its symbol, the number of neutrons to the lower right and the atomic mass number (number of protons + number of neutrons) to the upper left. For example, the most common isotope of uranium has the symbolic nuclear configuration of 92 protons + 146 neutrons and an atomic mass number of 238:

Subscript 92 Superscript 238 Baseline normal upper U Baseline Subscript 146

      Stable isotopes have stable nuclear configurations that tend to remain unchanged; they retain the same number of protons and neutrons over time. On the other hand, radioactive isotopes have unstable nuclear configurations (numbers of protons and neutrons) that spontaneously change over time via radioactive decay processes, until they achieve stable nuclear configurations and become stable isotopes of another element. Both types of isotopes are extremely useful in solving geological and environmental problems, as discussed in Chapter 3. Radioactive isotopes are used in many medical treatments, but also present serious environmental hazards (Chapter 19).

      2.1.2 The electron cloud

Schematic illustration of distribution of electrons in the principal quantum levels of uranium.

      Every electron in an atom possesses a unique set of properties that distinguishes it from all the other electrons in that atom. An individual electron's identity is given by four properties that include its (1) principal quantum number, (2) azimuthal quantum number, (3) magnetic quantum number, and (4) spin number. Each electron in the electron cloud possesses a unique combination of the four quantum properties.

      The principal quantum number (n) signifies the principal quantum energy region, sometimes called “level” or shell in which a particular electron occurs. It is related to its distance from the nucleus. Principle quantum regions are numbered in order of increasing electron energies 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 or alternatively lettered K, L, M, N, O, P or Q. These are arranged from low principal quantum number for low energy regions closer to the nucleus to progressively higher quantum number for higher energy regions farther away from the nucleus.

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