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to connect writers with some of their diaspora audiences. In this regard, places such as the poet and artist Alemtsehay Wodajo’s entertainment venue in Washington, DC – “Tayitu Cultural Center” (named for the eponymous heroine Queen Tayitu, wife of Emperor Menelik II) – play a significant role. The center regularly presents mainly poetry readings and plays in Amharic to nourish the youth with core “Ethiopian” national values and to maintain a sense of national integrity. This type of diasporic sensibility and identification is a manifestation of what Benedict Anderson called a long‐distance nationalism.

Amongst other things, Amharic literature in the diaspora treats exile, patriotism, alienation, trauma, and nostalgia. The writers in these waves portray some commonalties in their work as they envision their homeland as a modern, prosperous, and stable nation. However, the vision is mostly painted with memories of pain and suffering. In my opinion, this kind of ambivalence emanates from the writers’ diasporic condition resulting from geographical dislocation, cultural disintegration, and emotional displacement. Most of the writers from the first wave have not returned to their homeland. Hailu Gebre‐Yohannes passed away in 2014 after living overseas for forty years. Tuma, Asfaw, Kirubel, and Worku have been living overseas for over forty years. Gebre‐Yohannes infused patriotism with frustration and indignation in his works. In one of his writings he states:

      Since I’m merely physically present in a foreign land

      Of course, you have to know, I haven’t been living rather dead!

      Asfaw’s collection of poems, Yilalla Denebo (1995), received its title from a traditional funeral ceremony. For anyone who is new to the tradition, the songs and dancing to commemorate the life of the deceased may be mistaken for a wedding. Thus, the title itself shows a state of sudden change from happiness to sadness and life to death – to reiterate, it signifies the collapse of certainty and disillusionment. Tuma (the pen name of renowned politician Iyassu Alemayehu), who is known for his political satire covered with traumatic memories, states that Kedada Cherka (Moon‐Hole, 2000) is “dedicated to those Ethiopian children who were killed by Derg and Weyane.” Worku’s collected poems and essays, Biketnm Tej‐Negn (1990), is almost entirely filled with longing and nostalgia. Tesfa Sintayehu has given the nickname “immigrant collection” to his fictional work, called Tobbia Chewata BeIyerusalem (1989). Wodajo dedicated her collected poems, titled Yemata Injera (the Eleventh‐Hour Blessing, 2009), solely to “immigrants.” The generation that fled the country in the second wave is highly self‐critical. As they witness poverty, disease, tyranny, and corruption in their frequent visits to their country, they courageously submit themselves for cross examination. They also feel guilty by taking on the responsibility for the daily suffering of the people in the country. Abebe’s Fetena YeInba Guzowochch (Trial: Journeys of Tears, 2005), as it resonates in the title, and Gebre‐Hiwot’s Etalem (The Endeared Sister, 2006) are poetic imperatives of such self‐interrogation.

      To summarize, there is one fundamental common feature that is shared between both generations, whether they are frustrated or delighted, disillusioned or visionary. Their diasporic imaginary is tremendously national. In brief, the fact that most of these authors chose to write their literary works in Amharic than in their adopted language indicates their decision to pursue a long‐distance nationalism. I think using their native language in their writing goes beyond communicating their vision. It helps them maintain their identity while fulfilling their desire to be connected to their ancestral land, conceptually and emotionally. In essence, this desire gave them the strength to express their condition artistically in their own language. It inspired Ethiopian engineers and entrepreneurs to build on their niche by developing Amharic software and establishing printing presses in their respective countries of residence. All of these contributions and efforts have made Amharic literature a global phenomenon.

Acknowledgments

      I owe thanks to my wife Emmua for her love and professional advice and assistance that made the completion of this chapter possible. You were always around and helped me to keep things in perspective.

Bibliography

      Selected Primary Works

      1 Admassu, Yohannes. 1998. Isti Teteyeku (1961). Addis Ababa: Berhanena Selam Printing Press.

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      3 Alemayehu, Haddis. 1966. Fiqir Iske Meqabir. Addis Ababa: Mega Publishing Enterprise.

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      6 Gebre‐Iyyesus, Afeworq. 1908. Libb‐Wolled Tarik. Rome.

      7 Gebre‐Medhin, Tsegaye. 1973. Issat wey Abeba. Addis Ababa: Berhanena Selam Printing Press.

      8 Gebre‐Medhin, Tsegaye. 2011. Tarikawi Tewinetoch. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press.

      9 Girma, Be’alu. 1983. Oromai. Addis Ababa: Kuraz Publishers.

      10 Girma, Be’alu. 2007. Ke’admas Bashagger (1970). Addis Ababa: Far East Trading.

      11 Retta, Adam. 1988. Mahilet. Addis Ababa: Kuraz Publishing Agency.

      12 Retta, Adam. 2009. Etemete Lomi Shitta. Addis Ababa: Rehobot.

      13 Retta, Adam. 2011. Yiwesdal Menged Yametal Menged. Addis Ababa: Rehobot.

      14 Retta, Adam. 2014. Mereq. Addis Ababa: Rehobot.

      15 Retta, Adam. 2016. YeSinibit Qelemat. Addis Ababa: Rehobot.

      16 Seifu, Debebe. 2016. YeBerhan Fiqir (1975). Addis Ababa: Rehobot.

      17 Worku, Dagniachew. 1970. Adefris. Addis Ababa: Commercial Printing Press.

      18 Zewde, Bahru, ed. 2010. Documenting the Ethiopian Student Movement: An Exercise in Oral History. Addis Ababa: Forum for Social Studies.

      Secondary Works

      1 Abbink, Jon. 1997. “Ethnicity and Constitutionalism in Contemporary Ethiopia.” Journal of African Law 41, no. 2. 159–174.

      2 Admassu, Yonas. 1995. “Narrating Ethiopia: A Panorama of the National Imaginary.” PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

      3 Admassu, Yonas. 2006. “The Image of the Hero in an Early Amharic Panegyric: Towards A Discourse of Empire.” Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Ethiopian Philology 1, no. 1. 69–86.

      4 Admassu, Yonas. 2010. “What Were They Writing About Anyway? Tradition and Modernization in Amharic Literature.” Callaloo 33, no. 1. 64–81.

      5 Anderson, Benedict. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.

      6 Ayele, Negussay. 2018. “Poet Laureate Tsegaye Gabre‐Medhin of Ethiopia: A Short Walk Through His Literary Park.” http://www.ethiopians.com/tsegaye/.

      7 Azeze, Fekade. 1985. “Ethiopian Creative Writing and Criticism in English: A Review and Bibliography.” Journal of Ethiopian Studies 18. 34–50.

      8 Chernetsov, Sevir. 1993. “On the Origins of the Amhara.” St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies 1. 103–117.

      9 Daba, Tadessa. 2017. “Nutrition and Socio‐Cultural Values of Teff (Eragrostis tef) in Ethiopia.” International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 2, no. 3. 50–57.

      10 Fellman, Jack. 2004. “Review of A Critical Anthology of Ethiopian Literature.” Research in African Literatures 35, no. 3. 186–187.

      11 Gebre, Tewodros. 2013. “Period, History and the Literary Art: Historicizing Amharic Novel.” Northeast African Studies 13, no. 1. 19–51.

      12 Greenfield,

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