Kelly Vana's Nursing Leadership and Management - Группа авторов

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the Gallup Organization found, for the 17th year in a row, that the public consider nursing to be the most ethical profession. By ethics, we mean the study of morality from a range of perspectives (American Nurses Association (ANA), 2015). In 2016 the Hastings Center produced a Report titled: Nurses at the Table: Nursing, Ethics, and Health Policy (Ulrich, Grady, Hamric, & Berlinger, 2016), sponsored by the American Academy of Nursing. The Report implied that nurses were uniformly ethical. In contrast to this, historian Lynn Dunphy (2001) wrote about nurses who cared for children with polio who were in external pressure ventilators, “iron lungs,” during the polio outbreaks of the mid‐twentieth century. These ventilators were metal tubes in which the patient's body was placed, and only the patient's head was outside the tube. Dunphy quoted a former patient: “…she [the nurse] told me to stop crying. She said she would turn my respirator off if I didn't stop crying. When she did, I passed out immediately” (p. 20). Dunphy wrote that stories like that abounded in her interviews.

      Do you think that this was unusual nursing behavior?

      Have you ever seen nurses behave with questionable ethics?

      What would you do if you saw such behavior today?

      This chapter has skimmed over some of the key events in nursing's history. It has told some stories in depth, for example, that of nursing student Isabella Lauver's early experiences at Cook County Hospital in the 1880s and Madame du Coudray's work in France in the 1700s. The point is to alert you to the complexity of history. There was no golden age of nursing when nurses were always wise and had plenty of time for hands‐on patient care. That is a product of wishful thinking on the part of today's public and public policy makers. Likewise, nursing education didn't start with Florence Nightingale, as demonstrated by Madame du Coudray and her “obstetrical machine” of the century before Nightingale. The past was both worse and better than we might imagine and it cannot be judged with today's lens. Furthermore, we cannot consider nursing's past in isolation from its contextual issues of gender, society, science, and place. Society in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries lacked today's social safety nets, such as Medicaid, Medicare, and Social Security, but medical science was advancing rapidly. Nurses thus witnessed extraordinary patient need alongside the new realities of, for example, effective drugs and newly developed vaccines. The concept of place in nursing's past means that nurses' education and practice was affected by the geographical setting—urban or rural, southern state or northern state, general hospital or tuberculosis hospital.

      The checkered story of formal education in nursing, briefly covered in this chapter, must be placed in the context of society in the nineteenth century, particularly the role of women at that time. In the nineteenth century and the early decades of the twentieth century, women's education was not a priority. Women were expected to become mothers and housewives. But the scientific advances of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries required that nurses, even though they were predominantly women, become appropriately educated. The importance of professional organizations over the decades, and their leadership, cannot be overemphasized in the history of nursing. From the NLN's early nursing curricula, starting in 1917, to the Advanced Practice Nurse organizations' recent moves in clarifying and publicizing the advanced practice roles, professional organizations have led the way forward.

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1846 First public use of anesthesia during surgery: allowed more complex surgeries and thus required more skilled nursing.
1851–1854 Crimean War: English aware of poor nursing care for troops. Nightingale and 38 volunteer nurses sent to English army hospitals in Turkey, near the Crimean peninsula.
1860 Nightingale establishes first training school for nurses in London, England
1863 International Red Cross established in Geneva, Switzerland.
1873 First “Nightingale Type” Nurse Training Schools opened in the U.S.
1880s Germ theory of disease developed
1899 International Council of Nurses founded.
1893 National League for Nursing (NLN) founded. Lillian Wald founds the Visiting Nurse Service of New York.
1896 American Nurses Association (ANA) founded.
1902 Lina Rogers Struthers hired, in New York, as the first U.S. school nurse.
1908 National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses founded; merged with the ANA in 1951.
1909 First university‐based school of nursing opened at the University of Minnesota.
1912 Public Health Nurses Association founded; merged with the NLN in 1951.
1917 Standardized curriculum for nursing developed by NLN.
1920 Women gained the vote.
1922 Sigma Theta Tau founded at Indiana University.
1923 Goldmark Report on Nursing Education. Mary Breckenridge founds the Frontier Nursing Service.
1924 First doctoral program for nurses, in education, opened at Teacher's College, Columbia University, New York.
1930s Great Depression: Graduate nurses began staffing hospitals; closure of some hospital‐based training schools; start of hospital insurance programs.
1934 Grading Committee Report on Nursing Education.
1942