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not more than one-eighth of an inch between them. Then add a few drops of water to each, till it is thoroughly soaked, but not allowing water to run away. Dry out the scratch by a shred of blotting paper.

      Turn down the oxygas flame to the smallest dimensions, and then boldly apply it with its hottest part playing right into the nick and at a single point. Probably in about two seconds, or less, the tube will break. If it does not, rotate the tube, but still so that the flame plays in the nick. After making the tube very hot all round—if it has not broken—apply the flame again steadily at one point for a few seconds and then apply a bit of cold iron. If the tube does not break at once during these processes, let it cool, and cut the groove deeper; then try again. [Footnote: This method is continually being reinvented and published in the various journals. It is of unknown antiquity.]

      Fig. 22.

      If the tube breaks after great heating and long efforts, it will probably leave incipient cracks running away from the break, or may even break irregularly. A good break is nearly always one that was easily made. If a number of rings have to be cut, or a number of cuts made on glass tubes of about the same size, it will be found economical in the end to mount a glazier's diamond for the purpose. A simple but suitable apparatus is figured (Fig. 23).

      Fig. 23.

      The only difficulty is to regulate the position of the diamond so that it cuts. In order to do this, carefully note its cutting angle by preliminary trials on sheet glass, and then adjust the diamond by clamps, or by wriggling it in a fork, as shown. Weight the board very slightly, so as to give the small necessary pressure, and produce the cut by rotating the tube by hand. When a cut is nearly completed take great care that the two ends join, or irregularity will result. This is not always easy to do unless the tube happens to be straight. Having got a cut, start a crack by means of a fine light watchmaker's hammer, or even a bit of fused glass, and entice the crack round the cut by tapping with the hammer or by means of the flame pencil.

      If the cut is a true "cut" the tube will break at once. As a supply of electrical current for lighting will, in the near future, be as much a matter of course for laboratory purposes as a gas supply, I add the following note. To heat a tube round a scratch, nothing—not even the oxygas blow-pipe—is so good as a bit of platinum or iron wire electrically heated. If the crack does not start by considerable heating of the glass, stop the current, unwind the wire, and touch the glass on the crack either with a bit of cold copper wire or a wet match stem. I prefer the copper wire, for in my experience the water will occasionally produce an explosion of cracks. On the other hand, the cold wire frequently fails to start a crack.

      Judging from the appearance of thick tubes as supplied by the dealers, the factory method of cutting off appears to be to grind a nick almost through the tube, and right round; and for really thick glass this is the safest but slowest way; a thin emery wheel kept wet will do this perfectly. Suitable wheels may be purchased from the "Norton" Emery Wheel Co. of Bedford, Mass., U.S.A. — in England through Messrs. Churchill and Co. of London, importers.

       § 31. To blow a Bulb at the End of a Tube. —

      I must admit at once that this is a difficult operation—at all events, if a large bulb is required. However, all there is to be said can be said in few words. In general, when a bulb is required at the end of a tube it will be necessary to thicken up the glass. A professional glass-worker will generally accomplish this by "jumping up" the tube, i.e. by heating it where the bulb is required, and compressing it little by little until a sufficient amount of glass is collected. The amateur will probably find that he gets a very irregular mass in this way, and will be tempted to begin by welding on a short bit of wide and thick tubing preparatory to blowing out the bulb.

      However, supposing that enough glass is assembled by-either of these methods, and that it is quite uniform in thickness, let the thickened part be heated along a circle till it becomes moderately soft, and let it then be expanded about one-fifth, say by gently blowing. It is perhaps more important to keep turning the glass during bulb-blowing than in any other operation, and this both when the glass is in the flame and while the bulb is being blown. It is also very important to avoid draughts. In general, a bulb is best blown with the tube in a nearly horizontal position, but sloping slightly upwards from the mouth. If it be noticed that a bulb tends to blow out more at one side than another, let the side of greatest protuberance be turned down, so that it is at the lowest point, reduce the pressure for an instant, and then blow again. It will be observed that the bulb will now expand at the top.

      The reason of this is chiefly that the under side cools most rapidly (according to Faraday, Chemical Manipulation, § 1194), and consequently can expand no further; but also it is not unlikely that the glass tends to flow somewhat from the upper side, which remains hot, and consequently the bulb, when the next puff reaches it, will tend to yield at this point. By heating several zones the tube will become gradually expanded.

      Fig. 24.

      Fig. 25.

      Fig. 26.

      When the length of the thickened part of the tube only slightly exceeds its diameter (Fig. 25), let the whole be brought to a temperature which, with flint glass, should be just short of that of perfect fluidity; and then, holding the tube horizontally and constantly turning it, let the bulb be blown out to its full size, noting the appearances and correcting too great protuberance on any side by the means above mentioned. If the bulb appears pear-shaped turn the tube so that the melted mass is directed upwards; if the bulb have the contrary fault, correct in the corresponding manner.

      The bulb when finished may be lightly tapped on the table, when, if there is any weak place owing to inequality of thickness, the bulb will break, and the operation may be started afresh. "A good bulb is round, set truly on the tube, and free from lumps of thick glass or places of excessive thinness." When the amateur has succeeded in blowing a bulb two inches in diameter on the end of a strong bit of thermometer tube—say for an air thermometer—he may well seek the congratulations of his friends.

      In case the bulb is not satisfactory on a first attempt, it may be melted down again, if the following precautions are taken. Directly creases begin to appear in the bulb let it be withdrawn from the flame, and gently blown till the creases come out. By alternate heating and blowing the glass can be got back to its original form, or nearly so, but unless the operator shows great skill and judgment, the probability is that the glass will be uneven. By heating and keeping the thicker parts in the higher position, and blowing a little now and again, the glass may be got even, and a new attempt may be made. It must not be supposed that this process can be carried on indefinitely, for the glass tends to lose its viscous properties after a time, or, at all events, it "perishes" in some way, especially if it has been allowed to get very thin; consequently too frequent attempts on the same glass are unprofitable. Two or three trials are as many as it generally pays to make. As a rule the largest possible flame may be used with advantage in this operation.

       § 32. To blow a bulb in the middle of a tube,

      the procedure is much like that already treated, but the manipulation is, if anything, more difficult, for the further end of the tube must be carried and turned as well as the end which is held to the lips.

       § 33. To make a side Weld. —

      This is by no means difficult, but is easier with lead glass than with soda glass. The tube to which it is desired to make a side connection having been selected, it is closed at one end by rubber tube stops, or in any other suitable manner. The zone of the proposed connection is noted, and the tube is brought to near softness round that circle (if the tube is made actually soft, inconvenience will

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