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of Different Perspectives

      The first way to introduce the concept of multiple perspectives involves providing examples of situations that lead to various points of view. For instance, optical illusions like the one presented in figure I.8 can be used to show how two different viewpoints can both be correct.

       Figure I.8: Optical illusion of a swan or a squirrel.

       Source: Fischer, 1968.

      In this image, students might see a swan with its beak tucked into its chest or a squirrel nibbling on something it holds in its paws. Ask for volunteers to share the animal that they see in the image, and then help the entire class see it both ways.

      Alternatively, a teacher might describe a scenario in which two people perceive the same situation differently based on different vantage points. For example, a person who is stranded on a desert island might be thrilled to see a boat drifting in the distance, while the person floating in the boat is relieved to finally see land.

       Hands-On Activities

      A second, more hands-on way to teach students that different people might have different perspectives is to put students in a situation that yields different perspectives within the class. For younger students, this can be as simple as taking class polls during daily activities. After reading Dr. Seuss’s The Cat in the Hat (1957/1985), for example, say, “Raise your hand if you would have let the Cat in the Hat into your house,” and then “Raise your hand if you would not have let the Cat in.” Point out that some students have one perspective, while other students have a different one, and that neither answer is right or wrong.

      Older students can handle more complex activities that illuminate various perspectives among their classmates. One activity involves an imaginary scenario in which students pretend that they have been in a plane crash, leaving them stranded on a deserted island. Give students a list of characters (mechanic, hunter, plant biologist, doctor, and priest) and ask them to put the characters in order from most to least important as they try to escape the island. Students discuss their lists in pairs, then groups of four, and finally as a whole class. Guide the class to the conclusion that there is no correct or incorrect solution. Point out that students’ responses are influenced by their differing beliefs and values.

       Communicating Responsibly

      An important skill for argumentation is the capacity to interact thoughtfully and respectfully with others during whole-class and small-group discussions. According to Marzano and Heflebower (2012), communicating responsibly depends primarily on the ability to hold oneself accountable for the outcomes of interactions. In other words, students must learn to communicate their ideas and beliefs in a way that is simultaneously honest, confident, and respectful, which means they must take responsibility for their own speech. Students who communicate responsibly exhibit the following actions:

      Speaking with a calm demeanor, including reasonable volume and tone of voice

      Listening actively (sitting up, making eye contact, nodding, and asking questions) while others are speaking

      Using disciplined and respectful word choice

      Critiquing ideas instead of individuals

      Not surprisingly, the authors of the CCSS considered the ability to “participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners” to be crucial to the development of college- and career-ready students (CCRA.SL.1; NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 22). They list some variation of this skill as the first Speaking and Listening standard for students of every age, from kindergarten through high school.

      Many others have stressed the importance of communicating responsibly for academic success (Campbell, 2008; Hess, 2002; Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008; Miller & Pedro, 2006; Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012). Sarah Michaels, Mary Catherine O’Connor, and Megan Williams Hall (2010) outlined the following elements of responsible communication from the University of Pittsburgh’s Accountable Talk® program:

      When classroom talk is accountable to the learning community, students listen to one another, not just obediently keeping quiet until it is their turn to take the floor, but attending carefully so that they can use and build on one another’s ideas. Students and teachers paraphrase and expand upon one another’s contributions. If speakers aren’t sure they understood what someone else said, they make an effort to clarify. They disagree respectfully, challenging a claim, not the person who made it. Students move the argument forward, sometimes with the teacher’s help, sometimes on their own. (pp. 2–3)

      The aforementioned elements of communicating responsibly can meaningfully influence the success of a classroom debate or discussion. However, as Michaels and her colleagues (2010) pointed out, productive academic discussions do not “spring spontaneously from students’ mouths,” but instead require “time and effort to create” (p. 1). Consequently, we recommend modeling, teaching, and practicing responsible communication skills with students before playing the games in this book, particularly those that involve discussion between students, such as Claim Capers (page 173) or Convince the Crowd (page 185).

      One way teachers can help students communicate responsibly is through modeling. Michaels and her colleagues (2010) wrote:

      Teachers may press for clarification and explanation, require justifications of proposals and challenges, recognize and challenge misconceptions, demand evidence for claims and arguments, or interpret and “revoice” students’ statements. Over time, students can be expected to carry out each of these conversational “moves” themselves in peer discussions. (p. 1)

      A second way to guide students toward communicating responsibly is through explicit teaching. We propose the following three steps for teaching responsible communication:

      1.Establish norms for communicating responsibly in the classroom.

      2.Provide student-friendly examples of responsible communication.

      3.Practice and deepen students’ understanding of responsible communication.

      Here, we provide detail about each step.

       Establish Norms

      Teachers should clearly establish classroom norms that support responsible communication and hold students accountable for upholding them. Humes (2012) pointed out that for students to engage successfully with controversial content, “the culture of the classroom has to be fair and open-minded” (p. 15), as well as trustworthy. He asserted that such an environment helps students feel safe and confident enough to speak up and express their own ideas. Moreover, the CCSS specifically require students to agree on and adhere to conversational norms. Second graders, for instance, are expected to “follow agreed-upon rules for discussions,” which include “gaining the floor in respectful ways, listening to others with care, [and] speaking one at a time about the topics and texts under discussion” (SL.2.1; NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 23). Marzano (2007) similarly suggested that every student contribute to a list of rules for effective behavior in the classroom. Students then add their signatures to this class pledge and hold themselves and each other accountable for its tenets. In keeping with these recommendations, we suggest that teachers collaborate with students to create a list of norms for responsible communication during discussion.

      For younger students, Michelle Cummings (2012) suggests using a traffic light metaphor to norm behavior before a discussion. The color red

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