Teaching Argumentation - Julia A. Simms What Principals Need to Know

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of particular words (see an example of such a video by NPR’s Radiolab [Radiolab, 2010] at www.radiolab.org/story/91974-bonus-video-words).

       Evaluating Persuasive Rhetoric

      Evaluating persuasive rhetoric involves determining a writer or speaker’s motive based on connotation, emphasis, tone, and figurative language, as well as judging whether these elements were used to mislead. To help students evaluate persuasive rhetoric, teachers can use the following process:

      2.Identify biased language in the speaker’s argument.

      3.Understand appeals the speaker may be using.

      4.Examine the motives behind the speaker’s perspective.

      Here, we briefly describe each step of the process.

       Articulate the Speaker’s Perspective

      The best way for students to identify and articulate a speaker’s perspective is to try to restate the claim a speaker is presenting and list the grounds, or reasons, the speaker is using to defend his or her claim. For example, a speaker might say, “Smoking should not be banned in the United States because individuals should have the right to choose whether or not they smoke. Banning smoking violates the Constitution because it takes away that right. Measures have already been taken to protect populations that are hurt by smoking, such as children or nonsmokers who are exposed to secondhand smoke. Additionally, the government depends on taxes from cigarette sales for revenue, so banning cigarettes would actually hurt the country’s finances.”

      Students might diagram the speaker’s perspective as shown in figure I.5.

       Figure I.5: Diagramming a speaker’s perspective.

      Identifying and articulating the speaker’s perspective by diagramming his or her claim and grounds allows students to then identify biased language in each element of the argument.

       Identify Biased Language

      Once students have deconstructed an argument into its component parts, they can look more closely at the words themselves. When a speaker uses biased language, he or she strategically uses words with connotations that convey a hidden message or claim. This technique can make a claim seem innocuous or agreeable to an audience, even if the audience would otherwise disagree with it. Consider, for example, the excerpts from political speeches made by Barack Obama and Mitt Romney in table I.17 (page 36).

      As shown, the student has highlighted words in each excerpt that have strong connotations, many of which are metaphorical, emotional, or grandiose. These include adjectives (such as worst, unequal, and American), nouns (such as crisis, opportunity, and corruption), and verbs (such as recover, collapsed, and inspire). Such words can be considered biased because they subtly express the opinion of each speaker.

Obama Romney
Some of our most urgent challenges have revolved around an increasingly integrated global economy, and our efforts to recover from the worst economic crisis of our lifetime. Now, five years after the global economy collapsed, thanks to coordinated efforts by the countries here today, jobs are being created, global financial systems have stabilized, and people are being lifted out of poverty. But this progress is fragile and unequal, and we still have work to do together to assure that our citizens can access the opportunity they need to thrive in the 21st century. An opportunity society produces pioneers and inventors; it inspires its citizens to build and create. And these people exert effort and take risks, and when they do so, they employ and lift others and create prosperity. . . . Even if we could afford the ever-expanding payments of an “entitlement society,” it is a fundamental corruption of the American spirit. The battle we face today is more than a fight over our budget, it’s a battle for America’s soul.

       Source: “Text of Obama’s Speech at the U.N.” (2013) and “Anatomy of a Stump Speech” (2012).

      For example, both speakers discussed the need for employment rates to rise and for Americans to have jobs. On its own, this sentiment is generally unobjectionable; most people would agree with it. However, each speaker used words that aligned with his personal views about government. Obama used the phrases lifted out of poverty and work to do together, which imply that government aid and cooperation among citizens improve the economy. He also used the words fragile and unequal to describe the economy, suggesting that it ought to be more regulated. Romney, on the other hand, used words like pioneers, inventors, effort, and risks, which imply that individual success and limited government produce economic growth.

       Understand Appeals

      Students can evaluate the biased language they have identified to understand another persuasive device that speakers use to communicate with audiences: appeals. Appeals are ways in which a speaker connects with his or her audience. Students need to know what appeals are so they do not confuse them with evidence. There are three types of appeals, as described by Marzano and Pickering (1997):

      Personality—In this type of appeal, the speaker or writer tries to convince you to like him. He might use personal stories, act very interested in you, or be very congenial.

      Tradition or accepted belief—In this type of appeal, the speaker or writer tries to convince you to “do the right thing.” Appealing to tradition involves referring to generally accepted beliefs or values to convince you to do something.

      Rhetoric—In this type of appeal, the speaker or writer tries to convince you by using beautiful language, impressive phrases, clever idioms, and well-crafted gestures. Appealing through rhetoric attempts to impress the listener through powerfully constructed communication.

      By making students aware of these types of appeals, teachers can help them understand that speakers and writers sometimes use techniques to convince that do not involve presenting evidence. In the previous example, Obama and Romney both used the pronoun we to appeal to personality; Obama said “we still have work to do together,” and Romney spoke of a “battle we face.” Each wanted the members of his audience to feel like he was on their side. They also appealed to tradition or accepted belief: Romney said that Obama’s economic views contributed to a “corruption of the American spirit.” Because the phrase American spirit typically refers to a shared set of beliefs among U.S. citizens, Romney’s statement implied that Obama is anti-American. Finally, the two speakers used beautiful or impressive phrases to appeal rhetorically to the audience. Romney likened the presidential election to a “battle for America’s soul,” and Obama called the recession “the worst economic crisis of our lifetime.”

      Students should watch for these appeals and recognize that, while appeals can strengthen an argument, they are not the same as evidence for the argument. After students understand a speaker’s perspective, biased language, and appeals, they can consider

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