Teaching Argumentation - Julia A. Simms What Principals Need to Know

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      1.Help students understand the mental process of making inductive inferences.

      2.Give students a model for the process of making inductive inferences.

      3.Help students focus on critical steps and difficult aspects of the process.

      Here, we describe each strategy in detail.

       Understand the Mental Process

      To introduce students to the process of making inductive inferences, use a concrete example. Walk into the classroom, slam the door, throw a pile of books and papers on your desk, frown, sigh, and cross your arms in front of your chest. Ask students what conclusions they reached as they observed these actions (for example, they might say, “You’re angry”). Explain that when they make specific observations and draw conclusions from them, they are performing a mental process called making inferences. To help them understand that inferences are not necessarily true, ask them to identify other possible causes of your behavior, such as being in a hurry or being tired.

       A Model for Making Inductive Inferences

      Although making inductive inferences is a mental process, a concrete model can help students make high-quality inferences. Marzano and Pickering (1997) recommended the following process:

      1.Without assuming anything, focus on specific pieces of information or observations.

      2.Look for patterns or connections in the information and observations.

      3.Make a general statement to explain the patterns or connections.

      4.Gather more information and observations to see if your statement holds up; if not, adjust it accordingly.

      To provide opportunities for students to practice the process, go on an inference walk around the school building or grounds. Model the process using a think-aloud. For example, in the cafeteria, you might say, “I’m looking around, and I notice that mayonnaise and pickles are set out at the condiment table. I’m also noticing that there isn’t any silverware set out by the trays today. I smell chicken cooking, and I can see hamburger buns stacked up in the lunch line. Let me put all of this information together. It could be that chicken sandwiches are today’s entrée. What else do I see or know that would support or refute that inference?” Once students are familiar with the process, have them practice in small groups or pairs as the class moves to different locations.

       Critical Steps and Difficult Aspects

      As students practice making inductive inferences, it is important to make sure they are aware of particular complexities that accompany the process. First, when students are learning to make inductive inferences, they may state conclusions that are not the result of seeing patterns or connections in information; that is, they may state ideas that are not actually inferences. For example:

      Restating original information—“I conclude that the man is happy because he said he was glad.”

      Describing an observation—“I conclude that the boiling water turned into steam.”

      Offering opinions—“I conclude that she should not have hit her sister.”

      These are not inferences. Students need many opportunities to practice generating conclusions that represent patterns or connections among observations or pieces of information.

      Second, students need to base their inferences on observation and information rather than assumptions and biases. For example, concluding that Edgar Allan Poe was obsessed with death because “Poe’s poems are weird” is not an inference because it is based on opinion, not observation. To help students understand what constitutes objective information or observations and what is considered a subjective opinion, assumption, or bias, give examples of each (as shown in table I.16) and discuss what makes each distinctive.

Objective Information or Observations Subjective Opinions, Assumptions, or Biases
Samantha has her head down on her desk. Samantha is pouting.
The little boy ran away from the woman. The little boy is naughty.
He walked quickly to the door. He wanted to see what was outside.
There is a lot of salt in this food. This food is terrible.
She has a temperature of 101 degrees. She has the flu.

      Finally, inferences should be based on as many observations or pieces of information as possible. Inferences cannot be proven to be true, but they become more likely as more information is found to support them.

       Distinguishing Connotation From Denotation

      Distinguishing connotation from denotation involves recognizing different implications or nuances among words with similar definitions (such as aroma and stench). Teachers can use the following process to help students understand the difference between the two:

      1.Explain connotations and denotations.

      2.Ask students to generate examples of terms that have the same denotation but different connotations.

      3.Ask students to think of multiple denotations for a particular term.

      Here, we provide detail about each step of the process.

       Explain Connotations and Denotations

      Denotations are definitions or literal meanings of words. Connotations are more nuanced—they are different shades of meaning associated with a particular term or phrase. To illustrate, the words aroma and stench are similar in denotation; both refer to strong smells. However, the word aroma has positive connotations (it usually describes a good smell) while the word stench has negative connotations (it usually describes a bad smell). Additionally, the same word can have multiple denotations. For example, the word run can mean to move quickly, to drip or leak, to use a running play in football, and so on.

       Examples of Connotations

      To help students understand connotation, ask them to list a number of terms that refer to the same concept (that is, synonyms for the concept). For example, given the concept smart, students might come up with a variety of synonyms such as clever, intelligent, brainy, shrewd, nerdy, bright, brilliant, and so on. Ask them to then classify the terms they generate into those with positive, negative, or neutral connotations. Once the terms have been sorted into categories, have students discuss the defining characteristics of each category.

       Examples of Multiple Denotations

      To help students understand denotation, ask them to list all the denotations of simple words that have multiple meanings (for example, play, blow, break, split, run, fly, fall, light, and space). Students might explain that play can refer to a theatrical production, to something children do, to participating in sports, and so on. The overall goal of this activity is for students to understand that one word can have multiple different denotations. Students

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