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long-lasting therapeutic outcome.

      Cross-Cultural Application of

      Relational-Cultural Therapy

      Although RCT was developed by women with the goal of understanding and addressing the unique needs of women, it has been applied to various populations (Jordan, 2018). Currently, RCT is applied to the “psychology of men and women, those at the margin and those at the center of society” (Jordan, 2017, p. 232). Some specific topics of research and application include couples counseling (Jordan & Carlson, 2014), new mothers’ experience of isolation (Paris & Dubus, 2005), eating disorders (Trepal, Boie, & Kress, 2012), self-injurious behavior (Trepal, 2010), adolescents (Cannon, Hammer, Reicherzer, & Gilliam, 2012; Tucker, Smith-Adcock, & Trepal, 2011), body image (Sanftner, Ryan, & Pierce, 2009), professional mentoring (Fletcher & Ragins, 2007), and LGBTQQ clients (Singh & Moss, 2016). RCT has also been integrated with other theoretical orientations and counseling practices such as reality therapy (Haskins & Applng, 2017) and play therapy (Vicario, Tucker, Smith Adcock, & Hudgins-Mitchell, 2013). Through ongoing research, the applicability of RCT to an extensive range of populations has been validated.

      Conclusion

      The RCT approach to counseling and view of development provides a paradigm shift in understanding individuals and human development. The transition from the disregard and downgrading of relational principles to viewing connection as a strength and essential component of developmental growth has transformed our understating of relationships. With this framework, “mental health professionals can explore how issues related to sex role socialization, power, dominance, marginalization, and subordination affect the mental health and relational development of all people” (Comstock et al., 2008, p. 279). Culture, past experiences, and connections can now be used constructively to help clients develop relational skills and improve long-term prognosis.

      References

      Cannon, K. B., Hammer, T. R., Reicherzer, S., & Gilliam, B. J. (2012). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for relational competencies and movement in group work with female adolescents. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 7(1), 2–16.

      Comstock, D., Daniels, J., & D’Andrea, M. (2006). Building unity and vision: A relational-cultural approach. Counseling Today , 49(2), 38.

      Comstock, D., Hammer, T. R., Strentzsch, J., Cannon, K., Parsons, J., & Salazar, G., II. (2008). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for bridging relational, multicultural, and social justice competencies. Journal of Counseling & Development , 86(3), 279–87.

      Duffey, T. (2006). Promoting relational competencies in counselor education through creativity and relational-cultural theory. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health , 2(1), 47–59.

      Duffey, T., Haberstroh, S., & Trepal, H. (2009). A grounded theory of relational competencies and creativity in counseling: Beginning the dialogue. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health , 4(2), 89–112.

      Duffey, T., & Somody, C. (2011). The role of relational-cultural theory in mental health counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 33(3), 223–42.

      Fletcher, J. K., & Ragins, B. R. (2007). Stone Center relational cultural theory. In B. R. Ragins & K. E. Kram (Eds.), The handbook of mentoring at work: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 373–99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

      Frey, L. L. (2013). Relational-cultural therapy: Theory, research, and application to counseling competencies. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 44(3), 177–85.

      Gladding, S. T. (2016). The creative arts in counseling (5th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

      Haskins, N. H., & Appling, B. (2017). Relational-cultural theory and reality therapy: A culturally responsive integrative framework. Journal of Counseling & Development, 95(1), 87–99.

      Jordan, J. V. (2000). The role of mutual empathy in relational/cultural therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(8), 1005–16.

      Jordan, J. V. (2008). The power of connection: Recent developments in relational-cultural theory. Philadelphia, PA: Haworth Press.

      Jordan, J. V. (2017). Relational-cultural theory: The power of connection to transform our lives. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 56(3), 228–43.

      Jordan, J. V. (2018). Relational-cultural therapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

      Jordan, J. V., & Carlson, J. (2014). Creating connection: A relational-cultural approach with couples. New York, NY: Routledge.

      Miller, J. B. (1986). What do we mean by relationships? Work in progress no. 22. Stone Center, Wellesley College.

      Miller, J. B., & Stiver, I. (1997). The healing connection: How women form relationship in therapy and in life. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

      Paris, R., & Dubus, N. (2005). Staying connected while nurturing an infant: A challenge of new motherhood. Family Relations, 54(1), 72–83.

      Ruiz, E. (2005). Hispanic culture and relational cultural theory. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 1(1), 33–55.

      Sanftner, J. L., Ryan, W. J., & Pierce, P. (2009). Application of a relational model to understanding body image in college women and men. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 23(4), 262–80.

      Singh, A. A., & Moss, L. (2016). Using relational-cultural theory in LGBTQQ counseling: Addressing heterosexism and enhancing relational competencies. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(4), 398–404.

      Trepal, H. C. (2010). Exploring self-injury through a relational cultural lens. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88(4), 492–99.

      Trepal, H. C., Boie, I., & Kress, V. E. (2012). A relational cultural approach to working with clients with eating disorders. Journal of Counseling & Development, 90(3), 346–56.

      Tucker, C., Smith-Adcock, S., & Trepal, H. (2011). Relational-cultural theory for middle school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 14(5), 310–16.

      Vicario, M., Tucker, C., Smith Adcock, S., & Hudgins-Mitchell, C. (2013). Relational-cultural play therapy: Reestablishing healthy connections with children exposed to trauma in relationships. International Journal of Play Therapy, 22(2), 103–17.

      Vogel, J. (2006). Using relational-cultural theory to conceptualize couple interventions in the treatment of sex addiction. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health , 2(4), 3–17.

      Part II

      Development from Adolescence through Older Adulthood

      Chapter 4

      Counseling Adolescent Girls

      Marcela Kepic

      Case Vignette: Sofia

       Sofia has recently celebrated her sixteenth birthday. She has one younger brother, but she considers herself homeless. Her mother and younger brother have been moving from shelter to shelter since shortly after Sofia’s father was deported back to Mexico due to charges of domestic violence and child abuse. Sofia and her mother have a rather distant relationship that has been getting worse in recent months. Sofia attends school but struggles academically. She enjoys the arts, especially painting. Sofia does not have a lot of friends but, on occasion, speaks with one girl from her art class. She hangs out with other teens on her block but is not close to any of them due to frequent relocations. Last weekend,

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