Electricity and Magnetism - Gray Elisha

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you a very limited outline of the history of electricity, from ancient times down to the present, we will endeavor now to give you an elementary notion of the science as it stands to-day. To the common mind the science is a blank page. So little is known of it by the ordinary reader, who is fairly intelligent in other matters, that to account for anything that we do not understand it is only necessary to say that it is an electrical phenomenon and he accepts it. Electricity is a synonym for all that we cannot understand. Inasmuch as magnetism is so closely related to electricity in its uses as related to every-day life, we will carry the two subjects along together, as the one will to a large extent help to explain the other. In our next chapter we will look at the history of magnetism.

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      It is said that the word magnetism is derived from the name of a Greek shepherd, called Magnes, who once observed on Mount Ida the attractive properties of loadstone when applied to his iron shepherd's crook. It is more likely that the name came from Magnesia, a country in Lydia, where it was first discovered. It was also called Lapis Heracleus. Heraclea was the capital of Magnesia. Loadstone is a magnetic ore or oxide of iron found in the natural state, and has at some time by natural processes been rendered magnetic—that is, given the power of attracting iron, and, when suspended, of pointing to the North and South Poles. The power of the natural magnet was known at a very early age in the history of man. It was referred to by Homer, Pythagoras, and Aristotle. Pliny also speaks of it, and refers to one Dinocares, who recommended to Ptolemy Philadelphus to build a temple at Alexandria and suspend in its vault a statue of the queen by the attractive power of "loadstones." There is also mention of a statue being suspended in like manner in the temple of Serapis, Alexandria.

      It is claimed that the Chinese knew of and used the magnetic needle in the earliest times and that travelers by land employed this needle suspended by a string to guide them in their journeys across the country a thousand years before Christ. Notwithstanding the claims of the Chinese and Arabians to the discovery of the use of the magnetic needle, modern authors question whether the ancients were familiar with any artificial construction of a magnetic needle, however much they may have studied and used the loadstones. No doubt the loadstone in its natural state was used by mariners to steer their ships by, long before its artificial counterpart was invented. In a history of the discovery of Iceland, by Are Frode, who was born in 1068, it is stated that a mariner by name of Folke Gadenhalen sailed from Norway in search of Iceland in the year 868, and that he carried with him three ravens as guides, for he says, "in those times seamen had no loadstones in the northern countries." The magnetic needle as applied to the mariner's compass was known in the eleventh century, as proved by various authors. In an old French poem, the manuscript of which still exists, the mariner's compass is clearly mentioned. The author was Guyot, of Provence, who was alive in 1181.

      Like electricity, magnetism has had a long history, but little use was made of it till modern times beyond that of the mariner's compass. It can readily be seen what an important factor it was in the science of navigation. Long after the discovery of the compass needle there were many perplexing problems arising, and all sorts of theories were advanced to account for the various phenomena. The variation of the needle was one of these problems. It is said that Columbus was the first to discover the variation of the needle, as well as America. This is disputed, however, as every man's pretensions usually are. However this may be, Columbus had to invent some plausible theory to account for this variation to prevent a mutiny among his crew. They were very superstitious and thought that they were sailing into a new world where the laws of nature were different from those of Spain. One phenomenon that disturbed Columbus was the dip of the needle. As we move in a northerly direction a magnetic needle dips, and it was the observation of this phenomenon in different latitudes that finally resulted in the invention of the dipping needle. It is well known that one pole of a magnetic needle points to the north and the other to the south. In other words, what is called the north pole of a needle points to one of the magnetic poles of the earth which is in the direction of the north pole, though not the same as the geographical pole. A dipping needle revolves on an axis so that it can point to any declination. If we should construct one that is perfectly balanced, so as to lie in a perfectly horizontal direction before it is magnetized, it will dip—in this latitude—downward toward the north after magnetization. If we keep moving northward it will continue to dip downward till we come to the true magnetic pole, when what is called the north pole of the needle will point directly downward. If we go back to the equator the needle will lie horizontally again. We call the end of the needle that points to the north the north pole. It is really the south pole, because unlike poles attract each other. If the magnetic poles of the earth are at the north and south geographical poles, the south pole of the needle will point north. But it is less confusing to call the end of the needle that points north the north pole. The nomenclature is purely arbitrary.

      It was not until it was learned that magnets could be made by electricity that they became commercially important outside of their use in navigation. The advent of electricity has brought magnetism to the front as one of the great factors in our modern civilization. And we might say with equal force that the discovery of magnetism has brought electricity to the front. The truth is that they depend upon each other. Electricity would be robbed of a large part of its importance as a factor in modern life if it were not for its relation to magnetism. Even electric lighting would be impossible, commercially, if it were not for the part magnetism plays in the production of electricity for this purpose. It could not be successfully carried on with any battery but the storage-battery, and the storage-battery is dependent upon the dynamo, and the dynamo is a magneto-electric machine. When we come to analyze the relation between magnetism and electricity we cannot separate them without robbing each of a large part of its usefulness. They are interdependent forces.

      As in the case of electricity there have been many theories regarding magnetism. One philosopher in the old days accounts for the variation of the compass-needle on the theory that there are two globes, one revolving within the other, and that any derangement of their normal movements in relation to each other affects the needle. Evidently there were cranks in those days as well as now. Another theory of magnetism was that there were two fluids—a boreal and an austral—one developing north polarity and the other south polarity. In the next chapter the nature of magnetism in the light of modern investigation will be discussed.

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      Iron and steel have a peculiar property called magnetism. It is an attraction in many ways unlike the attraction of cohesion or the attraction of gravitation. It is very certain that magnetism is an inherent property of the molecules of iron and steel, and, to a small degree, other forms of matter. That is to say, the molecules are little natural magnets of themselves. It is as unnecessary to inquire why they are magnets as it is to inquire why the molecules of all ordinary substances possess the attraction of cohesion. The one is as easy to explain as the other. People of all ages have insisted upon making a greater mystery of all electrical and magnetic phenomena than they do of other natural forces. Ampère's theory is that electric currents are flowing around the molecules which render them magnetic; but it is just as easy to suppose that magnetism is an inherent quality of the molecule. (The word molecule is here used as referring to the smallest particle of iron.)

      These little molecular magnets, so small that 100,000 million million million of them can be put into a cubic inch of space, have their attractions satisfied

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