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may in fact cause a breach of privacy. The privacy aspect of a security control should be evaluated in light of regulations, contractual obligations, and the organization's privacy policy/promise.

      Generally, an SCA is a process implemented by federal agencies based on NIST SP 800-53 Rev. 5, titled “Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations” (csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-53/rev-5/final). However, though defined as a government process, the concept of evaluating the reliability and effectiveness of security controls should be adopted by every organization that is committed to sustaining a successful security endeavor.

      Monitoring and Measurement

      Security controls should provide benefits that can be monitored and measured. If a security control's benefits cannot be quantified, evaluated, or compared, then it does not actually provide any security. A security control may provide native or internal monitoring, or external monitoring may be required. You should take this into consideration when making initial countermeasure selections.

Measuring the effectiveness of a countermeasure is not always an absolute value. Many countermeasures offer degrees of improvement rather than specific hard numbers as to the number of breaches prevented or attack attempts thwarted. Often to obtain countermeasure success or failure measurements, monitoring and recording of events both prior to and after safeguard installation is necessary. Benefits can only be accurately measured if the starting point (i.e., the normal point or initial risk level) is known. Part of the cost/benefit equation takes countermeasure monitoring and measurement into account. Just because a security control provides some level of increased security does not necessarily mean that the benefit gained is cost-effective. A significant improvement in security should be identified to clearly justify the expense of new countermeasure deployment.

      Risk Reporting and Documentation

      Risk reporting is a key task to perform at the conclusion of a risk analysis. Risk reporting involves the production of a risk report and a presentation of that report to the interested/relevant parties. For many organizations, risk reporting is an internal concern only, whereas other organizations may have regulations that mandate third-party or public reporting of their risk findings. A risk report should be accurate, timely, comprehensive of the entire organization, clear and precise to support decision making, and updated on a regular basis.

      A risk register or risk log is a document that inventories all the identified risks to an organization or system or within an individual project. A risk register is used to record and track the activities of risk management, including the following:

       Identifying risks

       Evaluating the severity of and prioritizing those risks

       Prescribing responses to reduce or eliminate the risks

       Tracking the progress of risk mitigation

      A risk register can serve as a project management document to track completion of risk response activities as well as a historical record of risk management over time. The contents of a risk register could be shared with others to facilitate a more realistic evaluation of real-world threats and risks through the amalgamation of risk management activities by other organizations.

      A risk matrix or risk heat map is a form of risk assessment that is performed on a basic graph or chart. It is sometimes labeled as a qualitative risk assessment. The simplest form of a risk matrix is a 3×3 grid comparing probability and damage potential. This was covered in Chapter 1.

      Continuous Improvement

      Risk analysis is performed to provide upper management with the details necessary to decide which risks should be mitigated, which should be transferred, which should be deterred, which should be avoided, and which should be accepted. The result is a cost/ benefit comparison between the expected cost of asset loss and the cost of deploying safeguards against threats and vulnerabilities. Risk analysis identifies risks, quantifies the impact of threats, and aids in budgeting for security. It helps integrate the needs and objectives of the security policy with the organization's business goals and intentions. The risk analysis/risk assessment is a “point in time” metric. Threats and vulnerabilities constantly change, and the risk assessment needs to be redone periodically in order to support continuous improvement.

      Security is always changing. Thus, any implemented security solution requires updates and changes over time. If a continuous improvement path is not provided by a selected countermeasure, it should be replaced with one that offers scalable improvements to security.

An enterprise risk management (ERM) program can be evaluated using the Risk Maturity Model (RMM). An RMM assess the key indicators and activities of a mature, sustainable, and repeatable risk management process. There are several RMM systems, each prescribing various means to achieve greater risk management capability. They generally relate the assessment of risk maturity against a five-level model (similar to that of the Capability Maturity Model [CMM]; see Chapter 20, “Software Development Security”). The typical RMM levels are as follows:

      1 Ad hoc—A chaotic starting point from which all organizations initiate risk management.

      2 Preliminary—Loose attempts are made to follow risk management processes, but each department may perform risk assessment uniquely.

      3 Defined—A common or standardized risk framework is adopted organization-wide.

      4 Integrated—Risk management operations are integrated into business processes, metrics are used to gather effectiveness data, and risk is considered an element in business strategy decisions.

      5 Optimized—Risk management focuses on achieving objectives rather than just reacting to external threats; increased strategic planning is geared toward business success rather than just avoiding incidents; and lessons learned are reintegrated into the risk management process.

      If you have an interest in learning more about RMM, there is an interesting study of numerous RMM systems and the attempt to derive a generic RMM from the common elements. See “Developing a generic risk maturity model (GRMM) for evaluating risk management in construction projects” at www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13669877.2019.1646309.

      An often-overlooked area of risk is that of legacy devices, which may be EOL and/or EOSL:

       End-of-life (EOL) is the point at which a manufacturer no longer produces a product. Service and support may continue for a period of time after EOL, but no new versions will be made available for sale or distribution. An EOL product should be scheduled for replacement before it fails or reaches end-of-support (EOS) or end-of-service life (EOSL).

       EOL is sometimes perceived or used as the equivalent of EOSL. End-of-service-life (EOSL) or end-of-support (EOS) are those systems that are no longer receiving updates and support from the vendor. If an organization continues to use an EOSL system, then the risk of compromise is high because any future exploitation will never be patched or fixed. It is of utmost importance to move off EOSL systems in order to maintain a secure environment. It might not seem initially cost-effective or practical to move away from a solution that still works just because the vendor has terminated support. However, the security management efforts you will expend will likely far exceed the cost of developing and deploying a modern system–based replacement. For example, Adobe Flash Player reached its EOSL on December 31, 2020, and should be uninstalled, as recommended by Adobe.

      Risk Frameworks

A risk framework is a guideline or recipe for how risk is to be assessed,

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