LITMIR.BIZ

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spots of Francophone studies therefore preclude any claims to insight by the field? Are our readings of Francophone works condemned to be mere misreadings of what we call Francophone Africa? An overview of the debates connected to Francophone works indicates the frequent reappearance of a number of key terms that, for better or worse, have long framed discussions of African cultural production. Perhaps chief among these are the stakes surrounding notions of political engagement and authenticity, two framing notions that have often proven more misleading than enlightening. Within these we may also include the oft‐debated language question, that is, whether African artists should create in European languages in view of reaching a global audience or commit to writing in African languages to privilege an African reception of their works. When defended to the letter, such requisites to African cultural production can result in circular debates, denying creative liberty to authors on one hand, and, on the other, leading readers to embark on a misguided and exoticizing quest for the truly “authentic” African creative spirit.

      Perhaps a more productive approach is to address not how authors reflect the position of a prototypical authentic or politically conscious African creator, but rather how they problematize, redefine, and realign the prisms through which their works are read and understood. This allows us to interpret these works as acts of performance, a term that refers here to language’s ability to create new meaning and not merely to reflect a given reality. Lydie Moudileno provides an example of such a reading when, in discussing postcolonial authors of the Republic of Congo, she speaks of processes of postcolonial parading, which she describes as “un acte de profération identitaire qui passe par une théâtralisation – plus ou moins contrôlée – des corps et des images dans un espace particulier, et qui se pose en résistance à (ou en compétition avec) d’autres imaginaires et d’autres mises en scène auxquels le sujet substitue une auto‐fiction dont il s’approprie le contrôle” (an act of identity pronouncement that passes through a more or less controlled performativity of bodies and images within a particular space. This act takes place in resistance to (or in competition with) contending imaginations and stagings, which the subject replaces with a work of auto‐fiction over which he seizes control) (Moudileno 2006, 23). Discursive “inventions” of Africa notwithstanding, authors are not simply doomed to reflect a colonially inflected image of the authentic African creator but may use cultural works to deconstruct such discourses from within. This suggests, as Christopher Miller has argued, that incomplete though it may be as a means of reversing power struggles in the production of knowledge about Africa, Francophone African literature is, at the very least, a tool for seizure of the “means of projection,” and “a transfer of the right to represent Africa in French, from French writers to Africans” (Miller 1990, 296).

The African Author and the Duty Toward Engagement

For a generation of African authors whose work straddled the late colonial period (the aftermath of World War II through the 1950s) and the first decade of political independence in the 1960s, the politically engaged writer stood as a defining and iconic figure in debates around African literature. The term “engaged” here serves as the approximate English translation of the French term littérature engagée, referring to literature that, out of a sense of duty or moral obligation, takes an active engagement with the political and social sphere.² Not to do so, engaged authors would argue, would mean falling for the illusion of political neutrality. In the context of the Central African region, politically engaged writers worked to expose the racist ideologies that had formed the basis of the European colonial project. The colonizers of this region came under many different flags, and most notoriously in King Leopold II of Belgium’s seizure and subsequent exploitation and brutal rule of what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. The neighboring Republic of Congo, a French colony in the late colonial period, contained the capital of French Equatorial Africa, a grouping of four of the French territories on the continent. This grouping abutted, but did not include, Cameroon, which was taken from Germany through the course of World War I and placed under French and British rule by a League of Nations mandate. At stake for colonial powers were the continent’s natural resources, eagerly sought out since the dividing of the “African cake” at the Berlin conference of 1884–1885. Rather than seeing theirs as the work of looters and usurpers, colonial powers depicted themselves as purveyors of civilization to the African continent, what the French called the mission civilisatrice, or “civilizing mission.” Following the horrors of World War II, however, in which large numbers of African soldiers were enlisted to fight, such lofty claims of an inherently modern and rational European civilization were increasingly difficult to make. Moreover, the declarations of the Atlantic Charter of 1941, with its defense of the right to self‐determination, helped to galvanize a global anticolonial movement worldwide. Central African authors placed themselves in line with this global movement, manifesting their political engagement by shining light on the wide gap between the ideals of colonialism and the violent acts of oppression that undergirded its project.

      Two canonical politically engaged Francophone African works of the 1950s explore the themes of colonial violence and exploitation through the form of the diary novel. The first, Une vie de boy (1956, Houseboy), by Cameroonian author Ferdinand Oyono, explores the dilemma of its protagonist Toundi by foregrounding his precipitous unraveling and demise. The novel begins with Toundi at the end of a long escape to Spanish Guinea and on his deathbed, from which he implores an attending compatriot and “brother” to tell him: “Mon frère … que sommes‐nous? Que sont tous les nègres qu’on dit français?” (My brother … what are we? What are all the Blackmen they call French?) (Oyono 1956, 13). Following Toundi’s death, his interlocutor takes possession of his journals, which make up the rest of the novel’s narrative. Through these we learn the story of a young houseboy who fled from his family and community in the keep of a French missionary, eventually coming into the employ of a colonial household where he fell victim to the intrigues of his matron’s affairs and his master’s jealousy.

Central to the novel is Toundi’s adoption of European writing and literary practices. Because of the novel’s form as a diary, it is through the protagonist’s own writing that we learn about his life and impending clash with white colonial society. His first journal entry offers an off‐hand reflection on the kind of introspective, journalistic self‐writing so closely associated with European literature and culture. “Je ne sais quel plaisir cache cette manière de Blanc, mais essayons toujours” (I don’t know what pleasure is to be found in this white man’s custom, but I’ll try it out) (Oyono 1956, 15). His exploratory mission onto the terrain of European writing practices leads to an introduction to the signs of meaning, race, and power at work in colonial society. The novel articulates Toundi’s own gradual apprenticeship within this parallel society through a series of bitter discoveries regarding his own subaltern status, which leads him to adopt a survivor’s approach in his relations with white colonial figures, whose domestic sphere he tenuously inhabits. The fragile veneer of protection afforded by his domestic role chips away as he falls into the displeasure of his patron. Toundi ignores warnings from fellow servants about his dangerous position as one with direct access to the intimate corners of white colonial life. These characters seem to possess an understanding of unofficial power structures at work in the colonial project, making the novel a depiction not only of Toundi’s discovery of colonial racism and repression, but also of the small but meaningful acts of interference that make this work a portrayal of subtle resistances.

      In his reading of this novel, Christopher Miller points out how, “Colonized Africans … emit dualistic signals and form in effect an underground resistance movement,” an alternative set of signs, “where nothing is what the whites take it for” (Miller 1998, 135). Sophie, the servant, devises a plan to escape to Spanish Guinea and eventually does so. Kalisia follows her mistress’s orders, but with a visible indifference that infuriates the white matron. Toundi himself, after professing in the first journal his identification with the Christianity of Father Gilbert, later tells Madame that he is “Chrétien parce que le prêtre m’a versé l’eau sur la tête en me donnant un nom de Blanc … La rivière ne remonte pas à la source” (Christian because the priest poured water on my head and gave me a European name … The river does not

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