LITMIR.BIZ

       Figure 2.8 Zone of Proximal Development

      Jerome Bruner (1960) argued that the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but to facilitate thinking and problem-solving skills. These skills should be transferable to a range of situations. He believed that behaviour modification was a result of discovery learning, rather than being told something. For example, giving the learner the information they need to solve a problem, but not organising it for them. Learners should be active and construct their own knowledge. They should also build on this over time, known as scaffolding.

       Example

       Bob had a new group of learners taking a psychology course. He wanted to introduce them to various theories but did not want to confuse them. He asked them to research four theories and to write a paragraph about each in a simplified way. Once done, the learners discussed their findings among each other. During the next session, the learners researched two more and compared and contrasted them against the original four. This way, the learners were discovering things for themselves and building upon their knowledge. Bob is, therefore, facilitating what they are doing, rather than teaching them.

       Humanism theory

      The humanism theory emphasises the value of human beings and places the onus of learning away from the teacher onto the learner. Learning is, therefore, based on a natural curiosity and the desire for personal growth and development. Carl Rogers (1959) and others developed the theory of facilitative learning based on a belief that people have a natural human eagerness to learn and that learning involves changing your own concept of yourself. This theory suggests that learning will take place if the person delivering it acts as a facilitator. The facilitator should establish an atmosphere in which their learners feel comfortable, are able to discuss new ideas and learn by their mistakes, as long as they are not threatened by external factors.

       Example

       Vicky is due to teach an evening class in digital photography for beginners. The course does not lead to a qualification; therefore, she has planned to deliver what she thinks is relevant, based on the last time she taught it. However, she remembered being told by an observer of her session last term that she should consider the needs of her learners more. Therefore, at the first session, she decided to encourage her learners to tell her what their expectations of the course would be. This will enable her to facilitate her sessions to meet these. It will also ensure her learners feel included, are comfortable to discuss topics and, as a result, learning will take place as it is relevant to their expectations.

       Pragmatism theory

      Pragmatists consider thought a tool for prediction, problem solving and actions. It’s about dealing with a problem in a sensible way, rather than following fixed ideas.

      John Dewey (1938) believed that behaviour modification takes place when the person relates their behaviour to their experiences. He focused on the pragmatic method of inquiry as an ongoing, self-correcting, and social process. He believed problems could be solved through the application of inquiry and experience, rather than being taught.

       Activity

       Research other pragmatist theorists and compare and contrast them to those of behaviourism, cognitivism and humanism. Do you agree or disagree with any of the theorists? If so, why? You might like to discuss your responses with a colleague or friend.

       Pedagogy and andragogy

      Malcom Knowles (1975) brought the concept of pedagogy and andragogy to the fore in education. The pedagogical approach places the responsibility for making decisions about the learning process upon the teacher. They may decide to teach the same material in the same order at the same time to all learners. This doesn’t allow any flexibility for a learner who may miss a session or is learning more slowly or quickly than others. Pedagogy often relates to formal teaching methods. However, it is possible to teach in a formal manner, yet still involve the learners throughout a session to help make the learning process more engaging.

      If your sessions are mainly pedagogical, try to include your learners by asking individual questions to check their understanding. You could also ask pairs of learners to talk about a topic and then discuss it as a whole group. Your subject should never bore your learners; you will need to inspire them to maintain their motivation and interest. Learners will only be bored if the session is delivered in a boring way.

      The andragogical approach places the emphasis on the learner to take responsibility for the learning process. They can then ensure that they are learning in a way that suits them. This approach allows you to adapt your teaching approaches, activities and materials to suit each learner’s progress and development.

       The Peter Principle

      Peter and Hull (1969) devised the principle that people are promoted to their highest level of competence, after which, further promotion raises them to a level just beyond this and they become incompetent. This theory has been interpreted by different people over time, such as Noel Burch in the 1970s. The Peter Principle levels are as follows.

      • Unconscious incompetence – you don’t know how to do something, but don’t know that you don’t know this. To reach the next level, you need to know what it is that you don’t know.

      • Conscious incompetence – you know what you want to do, and start to appreciate the gap in your competence. To reach the next level, you need to know how to become competent.

      • Conscious competence – you can do what you set out to do, but have to give it a lot of attention. Through repeated practice, you can reach the next level.

      • Unconscious competence – you can perform a skill easily without giving it a great deal of thought. Once you achieve unconscious competence, you are at a level which suits your ability at the time.

      If you are promoted or try something different, you might return to the first level and become unconsciously incompetent again. This is useful to know, as your learners may reach and stay at one of these levels, or reach the highest level and then return to a lower level due to further progression.

       Example

      Zoe has just started attending a course to learn how to use spreadsheets. She has previously only used a computer for emails and the internet. She doesn’t yet know how to use a spreadsheet or the functions it can perform – she is at the unconscious incompetence level. After learning how to set up a spreadsheet, she now wants to perform some calculations; she knows she wants to do this but doesn’t know how. This is the conscious incompetence level. Zoe soon learns how to perform calculations and does this at the conscious competence level. She isn’t quite at the unconscious competence level yet, where she can do it without thinking.

       Domains of learning

      Bloom (1956) stated that learning often goes through five stages, which should lead to a change in behaviour. These stages are:

      • attention

      • perception

      • understanding

      • short-/long-term memory

      • change in behaviour.

      Starting with gaining your learners’ attention, and progressing through the stages should ensure learning takes place, therefore leading to a change in behaviour. The stages relate to your learners’ thinking, emotions and

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