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takes precedence over unique relations and the needs of friends and other relationships where exceptions would be made for special circumstances. Hence the two opposing values are called Universalism and Particularism. Typical characteristics of universalistic and particularistic cultures are compiled in Figure 2-24.

      Figure 2-24: Typical Characteristics of Universalistic vs. Particularistic Cultures³²

       Exercise: Cultural clashes in business situations (online)

2.3.3

Individualism versus Communitarianism

      Ensuring a better life for all is a goal everybody would agree to. Again, the way to this ultimate goal can start on two different sides. Some cultures start the journey with the individual, thinking that it is obvious that if an individual has as much freedom as possible and the maximum opportunity to develop itself, the quality of life will improve. Others start at the opposite end, paying first attention to the advancement of the community and demanding from its members to take continuous care of their fellows so that the quality of life for all will improve, even if this approach might lead to obstruction of individual freedom and development. Not surprisingly, the Western countries and Israel have the highest percentage of their population choosing individual freedom, as depicted in Figure 2-25.

      Figure 2-25: Percentages Opting for Individual Freedom³³

      How these basic assumptions shape business solutions can be observed by the introduction of pay-for-performance systems. This will be discussed in detail in chapter 5.3.3.

2.3.4

Neutrality versus Affection

      One dilemma affecting all kinds of interactions deals with the extent to which people of a culture tend to display their emotions. In affective cultures people express their emotions overtly and usually seek direct emotional response. In neutral cultures the general convention is to control emotions carefully. This does not mean that people in these cultures are emotionally distant or cold; they just do not vent their emotions immediately. Figure 2-26 provides an overview of the percentage of inhabitants of selected countries that would not express the feeling of being upset openly at work (considering such behaviour as being unacceptable and unprofessional).

      Figure 2-26: Percentages Opting for Not Expressing Emotions Overtly³⁴

2.3.5

Specificity versus Diffusion

      Some cultures need to define specifically and precisely the constructs they use, putting everything in an assigned place and an exact perspective. Other cultures prefer more diffuse systems where the overall configurations are still put together as patterned wholes. Specific cultures are very analytic in what they do; diffuse cultures are more holistic in their approaches. This very general value is measured by Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner in various dilemma vignettes, each showing a distinct facet of this enigmatic concept.

      When looking at the degree of (specific) involvement in relationships, this dimension shows if managers isolate task-related relationships they have with their subordinates from other matters like private relationships or if every level of personality and relationship is the same. In specific cultures, people might be addressed differently in different situations, depending on the relationship mode they want to stress in this specific moment – for example, using the doctoral title at work but not outside. In diffuse cultures, this differentiation does not exist. So a manager in a diffuse culture expects to be treated with the same respect at work and outside. This is mirrored in the vignette used for this aspect: imagine your boss comes to you and asks you to paint his house at the weekend. There were two examples for possible reactions provided. One was seen from the perspective of the colleague, stating that it is not necessary to paint the house if one does not feel like it. The boss is only the boss in the company, outside he has little authority. The second argument stems from a subordinate’s perspective. It states that despite the fact that he does not feel like it he would paint the house anyway. The boss is the boss and this cannot be ignored outside work either. Figure 2-27 shows the percentages of people taking the colleague’s perspective of not painting the house.

      Figure 2-27: Percentages Not Painting the House³⁵

      It is obvious, that intercultural misunderstandings are quite probable for example between a Chinese supervisor and a Finnish teammember. In case that a Chinese boss truly expects his Finnish subordinate to come to him on weekends for private domestic services, he will not only be surprised to find that his wish is ignored. Already with this request he will have lost his teammember’s trust and respect, as this is perceived as an illegitimate behaviour. Knowledge about cultural differences in diffuse and specific relationships, however, might allow them both to understand the underlying reasons for the respective behaviour and thus regain mutual trust and appreciation.

2.3.6

Achieved versus Ascribed Status

      Differences in status can be observed in all cultures. Some cultures accord status to its members based on their achievements in life. Others ascribe status by virtue of what a person is and not what a person does. These ascriptions could be based on – for example - age, education, profession, social connections, wealth or gender. This dilemma is approached by measuring the importance of achievement versus the importance of the family background. Figure 2-28 shows the percentage of people in the respective country not agreeing with the statement, that the most important thing in life is to act as really suits them even if they do not get things done. So cultures with high percentages consist of a majority of people that perceive achievement or “getting things done” as vital.

      Figure 2-28: Percentages Opting for Getting Things Done³⁶

2.3.7

The Concept of Time

      In a business context, the understanding of time is crucial for many endeavours. Differences in the concept of time can be observed by several aspects that need to be investigated separately.

      The main question is the relative importance of past, present and future. Cultures assign different meanings to these aspects of time that could be expressed through drawings of three circles, each representing one of these aspects. The configuration of these circles, especially their size and interrelation, provides insights into the time orientation. Distinctive examples of circle patterns for some of the countries considered above are shown in Figure 2-29.

      Figure 2-29: Circle Diagrams for Past, Present and Future³⁷

      It is obvious that for example in Japan all three aspects of time are viewed as fully integrated whereas in Russia there is no connection between them. Germany and the UK see a partial overlap of all three aspects with the present being the most important of the three in Germany and being the least important in the UK. This view could influence for instance the importance of strategies that is especially stressed in those countries that emphasise the future or the willingness to learn

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