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and expected. However, the type of status symbols relevant in a certain business environment can be very dissimilar and ranges from using office-provided smartphones to driving cars from prestigious (foreign) producers, inhabiting a huge office space with windows or employing several secretaries.

      Figure 2-7: Key Differences between Cultures with Small and Large PDI¹⁰

      Figure 2-8: Selected PDI Country Ratings¹¹

      Typical large power distance countries are Slovakia, Russia, China and the Philippines. Countries with a small PDI include Austria, Finland, Germany, UK and Switzerland. An overview of selected country ratings is provided in Figure 2-8.

      Hofstede’s PDI scores are of special practical relevance for the expected behaviour of leaders or members of teams in business situations. Imagine the culture clash that is likely to occur when an employee from a (very) low PDI country is delegated to a supervisor from a (very) high PDI country. The employee will feel offended by the strict rules he has to follow, the close control of routine tasks by his supervisor and the lack of (management) information provided. He expects to be seen as an expert in his own right and therefore is used to being asked about his opinion on business matters. On the other hand, the supervisor will not feel treated according to his rank. He will regard the questions his employee poses about the business development and new initiatives as something that does not befit an employee, understanding this information as classified. Requests of a flexible interpretation of the rules will be met with a lack of understanding as this is - in the supervisor’s point of view – a criticism of his higher judgement. He is not used to employees presenting their own ideas and will see this as an attitude lacking respect. Without knowledge and acceptance of intercultural differences this situation will cause both sides to react with mistrust and frustration. Appreciating the different views on equality in the workplace will enable leader and employee to adapt a stance of openness and composure without the emotional turmoil of feeling dishonoured and rejected.

      As already mentioned above, Hofstede’s framework is meant to distinguish between cultures of all sorts, not only national cultures. The PDI scores proved to be interesting for profiling different attitudes of workers and managers based on their skill levels. Using IBM data from Great Britain, France and Germany Hofstede assigned PDI values for six different categories of occupations. The scores show (not surprisingly) that groups of people with high-skilled occupations generally demonstrate a lower PDI score in comparison to those with unskilled or semi-skilled occupations. This is also true for the management level. Details can be obtained from Figure 2-9.

      Figure 2-9: PDI Values for Six Categories of Occupations¹²

       Exercise: Familiarise yourself with Hofstede’s PDI (online)

2.2.4

Individualism/Collectivism

      The second dimension of Hofstede’s framework measures the ties between people. When connections between individuals are loose, the respective culture is called individualistic. When a country scores high on individualism (IND), everyone is expected to look after himself, including (only) his immediate family. The opposite is true for societies with low individualism, the so-called collectivistic cultures. From birth onward people are integrated into very strong and cohesive “in”-groups that will continue to protect them throughout their lifetime. In return the group expects unquestioning loyalty.

      In the IBM survey, this dimension is measured by a set of 14 work goals. Participants were questioned about the importance of these goals in an ideal job (from 1 = of utmost to 5 = of no importance). Individualism is strongly associated with high importance of the following work goal items: sufficient time for personal or family life, freedom to adopt own approach to the job and challenging work that creates a personal sense of accomplishment. Collectivistic cultures with low scores on IND value especially training opportunities, good physical working conditions and the full use of skills and abilities. Typical characteristics of each extreme are presented in Figure 2-10.

      Figure 2-10: Key Differences between Cultures with Small and Large IND¹³

      High scoring and therefore individualistic countries include the United States, Australia, Hungary and the Netherlands. Truly collectivistic countries include Guatemala, Ecuador and Venezuela as well as Pakistan, Indonesia and Taiwan. An overview of selected countries is supplied in Figure 2-11.

      Figure 2-11: Selected IND Country Ratings¹⁴

2.2.5

Masculinity/Femininity

      The third dimension measures how desirable assertive behaviour is in comparison to modest behaviour. This is strongly related to conventions about role-typical behaviour of men and women in a society. These conventions are not based on absolute biological differences of males and females but on expectations about acceptable – or desirable - behaviour in certain situations that lead to culturally-determined roles. Consequently, the dimension expressing this is called masculinity (MAS). Societies with high MAS scores favour assertiveness, but predominantly from men, that are supposed to be tough and focused on material success. Women, on the contrary, are supposed to be tenderer, modest and concerned with the quality of life. Masculine societies are therefore characterised by clearly distinct emotional gender roles. In countries with low MAS scores these emotional gender roles overlap. All members, men and women, are supposed to be modest, caring, and concerned with the quality of life. These societies are called “feminine”. Typical dissimilarities between both sorts of cultures are listed in Figure 2-12.

      Figure 2-12: Key Differences between Feminine and Masculine Cultures¹⁵

      The MAS dimension was measured in the IBM study by the importance attached to a set of 14 work goal items. Masculinity was strongly associated with special importance of high earnings, recognition for a job well done, advancement opportunities and challenging work. Femininity was strongly associated with good working relationship with the direct manager, good cooperation in the team, living in a desirable area and employment security.

      Countries with extreme values in masculinity include Slovakia, Japan, Hungary and Austria. Typical feminine countries are Sweden, Norway, Latvia, the Netherlands and Denmark. Further examples of MAS scores can be obtained from Figure 2-13.

      Figure 2-13: Selected Country Scores for MAS¹⁶

       Exercise: Age-effects on MAS scores (online)

2.2.6

Uncertainty Avoidance

      Another dimension of the Hofstede framework measures the intolerance of ambiguity in society, or in other words: the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by unknown or ambiguous situations. This uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) is deducted

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