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each student masters content. First think in the ideal for a long-term vision (step 2.1 in chapter 10, page 196), and then compromise as necessary for your first implementation (step 2.3 in chapter 10, page 200).

       Principle E: Learning by Doing

      Ideally, projects should serve as the way the curriculum is organized, instead of subject-area courses. At Minnesota New Country School and others that take this approach, there are no courses, and students design their own projects based on the state standards that they need to meet and other interests they may have (Aslan, Reigeluth, & Thomas, 2014; Thomas et al., 2005). Student records should still list subject-area competencies mastered, as well as other competencies (social-emotional learning, higher-order thinking skills, and so on).

      Thus, your team will ideally decide to replace courses with projects now. However, your team may decide to take a more gradual approach by using projects extensively within existing courses. Either way, you should decide how to support planning, conducting, and ending and displaying projects (addressed in the following sections). For more guidance on project-based learning, see Project Excellence: A Case Study of a Student-Centred Secondary School (Anderson, 1990); Transforming Education With Self-Directed Project-Based Learning: The Minnesota New Country School (Aslan et al., 2014); Project Based Teaching: How to Create Rigorous and Engaging Learning Experiences (Boss & Larmer, 2018); PBL in the Elementary Grades: Step-by-Step Guidance, Tools and Tips for Standards-Focused K–5 Projects (Hallermann, Larmer, & Mergendoller, 2011); How Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Project-Based Learning (PBL) Affects High, Middle, and Low Achievers Differently: The Impact of Student Factors on Achievement (Han, Capraro, & Capraro, 2014); Learning to Solve Problems: A Handbook for Designing Problem-Solving Learning Environments (Jonassen, 2011); Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling (Kerzner, 2009); Passion for Learning: How Project-Based Learning Meets the Needs of 21st-Century Students (Newell, 2003); Problem-Based Approach to Instruction (Savery, 2009); Project-Based Learning Research Review (Vega, 2012); and Project Management for Middle School: How One Middle School Teacher Guides His Students to Managing Their Project-Based Learning Groups Like Pros (Weyers, 2017).

       Planning Projects

       Should we have fixed project periods?

      Even though student progress should be based on learning rather than time, you should consider having fixed project periods at higher age levels, especially when the projects are team-based. In the real world of work, most projects have deadlines, so it is important for students to learn to meet deadlines. In addition, it is important for students to work with different peers on subsequent projects, so they get to know more students better. This means you need to have a common time to finish with old teams and form new teams.

      Some students learn faster than others. You can give them more projects or bigger projects to do during the project period. Avoid combining all the fast learners with each other and all the slow learners with each other. Students might also collaborate with students from other classrooms, particularly at higher age levels as interests become more specialized.

      The length of the project period should usually be shorter for younger students, who are likely to work on many of their projects or activities alone, as in Montessori schools—though they do also have collaborative activities (Montessori, 1964). Individual projects can have a flexible timeframe, and students typically want to finish each project as quickly as they can. However, in some cases it is wise to establish a deadline, even if it is not the end of a project period. Some projects could be designed to last for two project periods or more. Help students become self-directed learners (principle N, page 73) by teaching them to gauge their project load and learn what is feasible for them. Each student could have a list of individual mini-projects to work on or books to read if he or she finishes a project early or while waiting for teammates to master competencies before the team can proceed with a project.

      At the beginning of a project period, teachers should think about planning time and procedures for students to create their short-term personal learning plans. Teachers may also need an initiation process to get each individual student or team started on each of their projects.

       What should the classroom be like for learning by doing?

      For learning by doing, the classroom must be a workroom, designed somewhat like an artist’s studio or woodworker’s shop, where students can work collaboratively on their projects with appropriate tools and workspace. Typically, for older students, knowledge-building tools are digital technologies, like computers and tablets with internet connections, but other supplies and maker tools are also important, from simple art supplies and recycled materials to elaborate resources such as 3-D printers and mechanical or woodworking tools. Students of all ages can learn many concepts in a self-directed manner with the aid of hands-on manipulatives like those used in Montessori schools (Montessori, 1912, 1917, 1964), or with “kitchen science” supplies (supplies that are commonly available in supermarkets or other stores).

       Which learning targets (short-term goals) will individual students pursue on their projects? Will the learning targets all be required standards, or will students be able to pursue some of their personal interests and talents?

      Given the 21st century testing environment, teachers will probably have to focus on required standards, but all students could be given some latitude to pursue learning targets that reflect their personal interests and talents. Too often this latitude is only given to faster learners, even though the slower learners are usually in greater need of motivation.

       Will the learning targets span several subject areas?

      We recommend this because it allows a focus on improving the student’s world, which makes projects more authentic and motivating.

       Who will select the learning targets—the student, teacher, or both?

      Even for required standards, you can empower students to decide which of those standards (learning targets) they will address during the next project period. Recognize that making good decisions about this is a skill that teachers need to cultivate in students. Younger students typically need more guidance. Student choice and empowerment motivate learning, so it is worth taking the time to engage students in this process.

       Once learning targets have been selected, how will projects be chosen?

      There are three major options: teachers select the projects from a project bank, design the projects themselves, or help the students to design or select and adapt their own projects based on state standards or other standards.

      There are considerable advantages to helping students design their own projects or at least select and adapt projects from a menu or online project bank—especially for older students. This enhances their motivation and self-direction, as well as their understanding of the standards. When students take it a step further and focus their projects on improving their world as well as themselves, they develop an orientation to activism, agency, and empowerment.

      If the teacher selects or designs the projects, he or she should allow students some choice of projects from a menu and some opportunity to modify the projects, rather than just assigning projects as is to students. This enhances motivation and student ownership of their learning.

      Each student will likely need several projects to address all the learning targets. Again, faster learners will be able to take on more projects than will slower learners, but it is still important to have faster and slower students partner together on however many projects each undertakes.

       Where will each project be conducted?

      For each project, the teachers or students will have to decide where to conduct it. Projects may take place in the classroom, elsewhere in the school, elsewhere in the district, or in the community. For older students, place- or community-based

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