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4. Conducting Practicing and Deepening Lessons After presenting content, how will I design and deliver lessons that help students deepen their understanding and develop fluency in skills and processes? 5. Conducting Knowledge Application Lessons After presenting content, how will I design and deliver lessons that help students generate and defend claims through knowledge application? 6. Using Strategies That Appear in All Types of Lessons Throughout all types of lessons, what strategies will I use to help students continually integrate new knowledge with old knowledge and revise their understanding accordingly? Context 7. Using Engagement What engagement strategies will I use to help students pay attention, be energized, be intrigued, and be inspired? 8. Implementing Rules and Procedures What strategies will I use to help students understand and follow rules and procedures? 9. Building Relationships What strategies will I use to help students feel welcome, accepted, and valued? 10. Communicating High Expectations What strategies will I use to help typically reluctant students feel valued and comfortable interacting with me or their peers?

      Source: Marzano, 2017, pp. 6–7.

      Within the ten categories of teacher actions, we have organized sets of strategies in even more fine-grained categories, called elements.

       Forty-Three Elements

      The forty-three elements provide detailed guidance about the nature and purpose of a category of strategies. Table I.3 depicts the full complement of elements. For example, we operationally define the category building relationships as:

      • Using verbal and nonverbal behaviors that indicate affection for students (element 38)

      • Understanding students’ backgrounds and interests (element 39)

      • Displaying objectivity and control (element 40)

      Finally, these forty-three elements encompass hundreds of specific instructional strategies. Selected strategies related to writing instruction are the focus of this book.

       Over 330 Specific Strategies

      At the finest level of detail are over 330 specific instructional strategies embedded in the forty-three elements. For example, element 24—increasing response rates—includes the following nine strategies.

      1. Random names

      2. Hand signals

      3. Response cards

      4. Response chaining

      5. Paired response

      6. Choral response

      7. Wait time

      8. Elaborative interrogation

      9. Multiple types of questions

      In effect, there are nine distinctive, specific instructional strategies teachers can use to increase students’ response rates, supporting the fact that two different teachers could both effectively improve their students’ learning by boosting response rates but with very different techniques. The reader will note that throughout the text we have addressed only those elements—and strategies within elements—that relate directly to writing instruction. Therefore, the breadth of this book will not extend to explanations and examples related to writing instruction for each of the more than three hundred strategies.

Table I.3: Elements Within the Ten Design Areas

Feedback	Content	Context
Providing and Communicating Clear Learning Goals 1. Providing scales and rubrics 2. Tracking student progress 3. Celebrating success Using Assessments 4. Using informal assessments of the whole class 5. Using formal assessments of individual students	Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons 6. Chunking content 7. Processing content 8. Recording and representing content Conducting Practicing and Deepening Lessons 9. Using structured practice sessions 10. Examining similarities and differences 11. Examining errors in reasoning Conducting Knowledge Application Lessons 12. Engaging students in cognitively complex tasks 13. Providing resources and guidance 14. Generating and defending claims Using Strategies That Appear in All Types of Lessons 15. Previewing strategies 16. Highlighting critical information 17. Reviewing content 18. Revising knowledge 19. Reflecting on learning 20. Assigning purposeful homework 21. Elaborating on information 22. Organizing students to interact	Using Engagement Strategies 23. Noticing and reacting when students are not engaged 24. Increasing response rates 25. Using physical movement 26. Maintaining a lively pace 27. Demonstrating intensity and enthusiasm 28. Presenting unusual information 29. Using friendly controversy 30. Using academic games 31. Providing opportunities for students to talk about themselves 32. Motivating and inspiring students Implementing Rules and Procedures 33. Establishing rules and procedures 34. Organizing the physical layout of the classroom 35. Demonstrating withitness 36. Acknowledging adherence to rules and procedures 37. Acknowledging lack of adherence to rules and procedures Building Relationships 38. Using verbal and nonverbal behaviors that indicate affection for students 39. Understanding students’ backgrounds and interests 40. Displaying objectivity and control Communicating High Expectations 41. Demonstrating value and respect for reluctant learners 42. Asking in-depth questions of reluctant learners 43. Probing incorrect answers with reluctant learners

      Some strategies use the same or similar terms; for example, the strategy of summary appears in element 8 (strategy 40, summaries), element 10 (strategy 59, summaries), and element 17 (strategy 133, summary). This is because teachers will use strategies differently depending on their particular purpose as we show in the following example.

      • Element 8: In chapter 3 (page 46), “Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons,” element 8—recording and representing content—asks that students summarize content briefly and quickly to identify critical information and describe how the pieces fit together.

      • Element 10: In chapter 4 (page 61), “Conducting Practicing and Deepening Lessons,” element 10 focuses on students examining similarities and differences. Students can succinctly summarize the attributes of two opposing topics through a graphic organizer or other method.

      • Element 17: In chapter 6 (page 98), “Using Strategies That Appear in All Types of Lessons,” element 17 suggests that students use summaries to review

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