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Reich, with his Sex-Pol clinics to alleviate the suffering of sexual alienation.²² Although assuring Freud that he had been personally analyzed by Landauer, he gave no indication that the Institute would emulate the model of Reichmann’s religious/therapeutic community or even Landauer’s Institute, whose leaders were active analysts, but instead would rigorously separate theory from practice. In one of the aphorisms in his pseudonymously published collection Dawn and Decline, Horkheimer had already expressed his distrust for the ideal of “inner health” as an antidote to “objective suffering” and asked scornfully if the revolutionary can “determine at any given moment how healthy, neurotic, at one or at odds with himself he may be? These bourgeois categories reflect their own world and not the struggle which proposes to unhinge it.”²³ Although here the distinction was between political activism and therapeutic practice, when the former grew less likely, radical theoretical speculation informing interdisciplinary social science replaced it as therapy’s antonym.²⁴

      Significantly, the same attitude came to characterize the Frankfurt School’s approach to two other traditions that had vigorously sought to unite theory and practice: religion and socialism. Despite the frequent introduction of theological ideas into critical theory, they were never tied to the observation of religious practices.²⁵ A similar pattern can be seen in their complicated attitude toward the unity of radical theory and revolutionary political practice, the shibboleth of Marxism ever since the eleventh Thesis on Feuerbach. Horkheimer himself distinguished a genuinely “critical” theory from a “traditional” one explicitly in terms of the former’s insistence that social emancipation rather than disinterested contemplation was its goal.²⁶ But the failure of the working class to be the vehicle of that transformation meant that the gap between theory and practice yawned wider, and the Frankfurt School increasingly resisted well-intentioned but vain efforts to bridge it.

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