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Holders of such documents run a serious risk of exposure, arrest and deportation. Even in those countries where the law gives the President, Prime Minister or other government ministers relative discretion regarding the granting of citizenship, if any payments are involved, these are bribes – a crime in almost every country. Often the result is a revocation of previously granted citizenship and passports, for example after a change of government. Persons who have acquired documents this way are also frequently blackmailed and forced to pay further ‘fees’ later on.⁴⁵ It is therefore crucial that citizenship is obtained based upon specific provisions in the law and clear, official procedures.

      A related criterion is that the granting of citizenship and the passports issued in conjunction therewith have to be recognized by other countries. If full citizenship has been granted based on the legal provisions of a country, it will normally be recognized by other countries. However, if only non-citizens passports are granted, generally this is not a good option. One example is Panama where a (legal) non-citizens passport under the retiree residence program can be acquired.

      Other important points to consider when intending to become a citizen of choice include the geographic location of the country, the official language, political and economic stability, the legal system, the banking and business environment, visa-free travel possibilities for passport holders of that country, the reputation of the country and the passport, and of course initial and future overall costs.

      You will also need to consider restrictions on dual citizenship. Some countries do not allow you to hold any other citizenship besides theirs. About half of the world’s countries allow dual nationality, and the other half does not allow you to be a citizen of another country at the same time. Among those countries which do not allow dual nationality, various degrees of strictness can be observed, but often the acquisition of another citizenship without first obtaining a formal permission (which may or may not be obtainable) leads to the automatic loss of one’s current citizenship. Therefore, one needs to carefully check the legal situation in the home country with regard to dual citizenship, prior to taking any steps to acquire another citizenship.

      The following is an overview of citizenship regulations in selected countries.⁴⁶

      Among others, the following countries allow the acquisition of another citizenship:

Antigua and Barbuda	Australia
Austria47	Bangladesh
Barbados	Belgium
Belize	Brazil
Bulgaria	Canada
Chile	Colombia
Croatia	Cyprus
Dominica	Dominican Republic
El Salvador	Egypt48
Finland	France
Germany49	Greece
Grenada	Hungary
Iceland	Iran
Iraq	Ireland
Israel	Italy
Jordan	Latvia
Lebanon	Lithuania
Macedonia	Malta
Mexico	Montenegro
New Zealand	Pakistan50
Philippines	Romania
Russia	Serbia
Spain51	Sri Lanka
St. Kitts and Nevis	St. Lucia
Sweden	Switzerland
Syria	United Kingdom
United States of America	Vietnam
Western Samoa

      On the other hand, countries which do not allow the acquisition of another citizenship include the following:

Azerbaijan	Brunei
China	Czech Republic52
Denmark	Ecuador
Fiji	India53
Indonesia	Japan
Kazakhstan	Kenya
Kiribati	Kuwait
Malaysia	Mauritius
Myanmar	Nepal
Norway	Papua New Guinea
Peru	Poland
Portugal	Saudi Arabia54
Solomon Islands	South Africa55
Singapore	Turkey
Spain56	Venezuela
Ukraine

      One of the most important criteria specific to citizenship is of course the overall reputation of the country and its passport. It is futile to obtain a second passport if the country has a poor reputation at a regional and international level, and therefore its passport is not well regarded and does not afford much visa-free travel, or causes suspicion at international borders.

      ²⁰ Wallerstein (1974) and Zolberg (1981)

      ²¹ See Ong (1999)

      ²² See for example Torpey (2000), Lloyd (2005), Joppke (2010), Hokema (2002)

      ²³ See The Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index (HVRI); www.henleyglobal.com/international-visa-restrictions/

      ²⁴ This can happen even to citizens of small and generally neutral countries, as Danish citizens experienced following the publication of Mohammed cartoons in the Jyllands-Posten newspaper in Denmark on 30 September 2005

      ²⁵ The Economist, 19 February 2013 “Tourist visas: You’re not welcome”

      ²⁶ For a good discussion of the differences between residence and citizenship statuses, see Joppke (2010)

      ²⁷ See Betten (1998) and Chapter 3 in this book

      ²⁸ See Ong (1999)

      ²⁹ For example in St. Kitts and Nevis

      ³⁰ Although some countries, such as the UK and New Zealand, have introduced limits to the passing on of citizenship infinitely through blood line if not also remaining a resident

      ³¹ See Hokema (2002) and Hansen/Weil (2001) on multiple citizenship

      ³² Some countries do not even allow you to give up your citizenship unless you have another one. For a good discussion of statelessness, see Stiller (2011)

      ³³ For example in China, Malaysia, the UAE and many other countries, there are minority groups which are resident there but are prevented from acquiring citizenship of the country they live in

      ³⁴ In some Swiss Cantons for example, you have to pass an “integration” test, which means that you may need to learn some Swiss history and other things deemed useful to qualify for the privilege of applying for Swiss citizenship. In some Asian countries, if you are not of a particular ethnic origin, your chances of ever being granted citizenship are close to zero. In most Muslim countries you need not apply if you are not Muslim

      ³⁵ See the chapter by Professor Weil for further information on this

      ³⁶ Ireland for example

      ³⁷ For an extensive overview see Bauman (2009) and www.henleyglobal.com

      ³⁸ Henley & Partners constantly monitor and evaluate residence and citizenship programs around the world against a number of criteria

      ³⁹ For an in-depth discussion of these options see Part IV

      ⁴⁰ For example, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Grenada, Nauru, the Seychelles, most South American countries, and others

      ⁴¹ Montenegro, for example, granted citizenship to the controversial former Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra on the basis of a mere promise to invest in the country

      ⁴² Panama, under its retiree residence program

      ⁴³ Tonga and a couple of African countries

      ⁴⁴ For more information see the website of the Ministry of Interior of Iceland http://eng.innanrikisraduneyti.is/laws-and-regulations/english/citizenship/nr/27049

      ⁴⁵ As has been the case in Costa Rica and other Latin American countries for many years

      ⁴⁶ The information is based on the author’s

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