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were ruled by de facto kings.

      4. Chemical processes usually flow in vivo quicker than in laboratory conditions.

      5. Mastery of genre and styles conventions liberates the ego of a writer and provides him/her with the tools of self-expression.

      6. You may find Errata in the section "Announcements" of the journal.

      7. While some scholars argue that conceptual systems do not exist a priori, others think that social groups, within which individuals function, are determined by and interact with prior "systems."

      8. To elaborate a new decision, the committee gathered for an ad hoc meeting.

      9. For this trip, per diem expenses must not exceed $40.

      10. Per capita income is an important economic category.

      11. Minerals get their names from various sources; e.g., alexandrite was named for Alexander I of Russia.

       Home assignment: Vocabulary in Use Units 2, 7.

      Lesson 3. Articles

      Do you always know whether to use a, an, the, or no article at all? Although there are rules to help you, there are also a lot of exceptions and a lot of fine distinctions to be made, so learning to use articles accurately takes a long time. However, to really master article usage, you should also read a great deal, notice how articles are used, and make notes.

      Before we look in more detail at how the English article system works, it is worth checking which areas of the system you can use confidently and which you are less sure about. That will help you focus on the relevant section of the unit; you may not need to study all of the sections.

      Below are two short tests of English article use, for you to assess how confident you are that you can get the answers right.

      Decide in each case whether the underlined numbered space should be filled with THE, A, AN or ZERO (no article).

      Test 1: New rules for Everest climbers

      Expeditions on _(1)_ Mount Everest will be more closely monitored than before from _(2)_ next year, according to _(3)_ BBC. _(4)_ Nepalese officials say that for _(5)_ first time, _(6)_ government team will be located at _(7)_ base camp. They will monitor and help _(8)_ expedition teams, coordinate _(9)_ rescues and protect _(10)_ environment. _(11)_ change follows _(12)_ embarrassing incidents on _(13)_ slopes of _(14)_ world's tallest mountain, including _(15)_ fight between _(16)_ sherpas and _(17)_ mountaineers.

      Purna Chandra Bhattarai, _(18)_ chief of _(19)_ tourism industry division that oversees _(20)_ mountaineering, told _(21)_ BBC: "There is _(22)_ need for _(23)_ permanent government mechanism at _(24)_ Everest base camp to regulate _(25) mountaineering activities. _(26)_Integrated Service Centre will also help _(27)_ climbers by offering them _(28)_ communication and _(29)_ safety-related services."

      Mr Bhattarai says that, starting from _(30)_ next year's spring climbing season, _(31)_ team at _(32)_ base camp will represent _(33)_ government's administration on _(34)_ ground. It was getting difficult to regulate _(35)_ mountaineering activities from _(36)_ capital, Kathmandu.

      Test 2: Bogeyman

      _(1)_ bogeyman is _(2)_ imaginary being used by _(3)_ adults to frighten _(4)_ children into _(5)_ good behaviour. _(6)_ bogeyman has no specific appearance, and _(7)_ conceptions about him can vary drastically from _(8)_ household to household within _(9)_ same community. In many cases, he has no set appearance in _(10)_ mind of _(11)_ adult or child, but is simply _(12)_ non-specific embodiment of _(13)_ terror. _(14)_ P/parents may tell their children that if they misbehave, _(15)_bogeyman will get them. _(16) B/bogeymen may target _(17)_ specific mischief – for instance, _(18)_ bogeyman that punishes _(19)_ children who suck their thumbs – or _(20)_ general misbehaviour.

      In _(21)_ many countries, _(22)_ fictitious scary man similar to _(23)_ bogeyman is portrayed as _(24)_ man with _(25)_ sack on his back who carries _(26)_ naughty children away. This is true for _(27)_ many Latin countries and _(28)_ Eastern Europe, as well as _(29)_ Haiti and some countries in _(30)_ Far East. In Spain, el hombre del saco is usually depicted as _(31)_ impossibly ugly and skinny old man who eats _(32)_ misbehaving children he collects. In Argentina, Chile and particularly in _(33)_ Southern and Austral Zones, he is mostly known as "El Viejo del Saco" ("_(34)_ old man with _(35)_ bag") who walks around _(36)_ neighbourhood every day around _(37)_ supper time.

(Grammar Troublespots: 98)

      A. Proper nouns

      1. Proper nouns that fail into certain categories are very rarely accompanied by an article: people's names, cities and states, countries and continents, months and days of the week, streets, churches and religious buildings, mountains, parks.

      2. Proper nouns that fall into the following categories must always be I accompanied by the definite article the: museums and art galleries, buildings, highways, seas and oceans, river, deserts, periods and events in history, bridges/ parts of the country.

      3. As a general rule, use the with plural proper nouns: the United States, the Great Lakes, the Alps, the Philippines, the Chinese (people), the Saudis, the Brazilians.

      4. The definite article the is often used with proper nouns that include a phrase with of: the Baseball Hall of Fame, the University of Michigan, the Citv of New York.

      5. The indefinite article а/an is rarely used with proper nouns.

      B. Specific Reference with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

      1. Use the definite article the to show specific reference with a common noun (singular or plural, countable or uncountable). A noun that has specific reference is one that both the waiter and the reader recognize as something unique. We know exactly which one or ones are being referred to. Sometimes we know that the noun being referred to is unique because of our knowledge of the world or the topic.

      The earth revolves around the sun, (We know we are talking about the sun of our solar system and that there is only one,)

      She took the children to school and then took the dog for a walk, (We know she has children and we know that the dog is the one that she owns.)

      2. A reference can he made specific by previous mention in a text.

      My neighbor bought a dog. My daughter is looking after the dog this week. (In the second sentence, the dog has now been identified as the specific dog that my neighbor bought.)

      She ordered plants and furniture from a catalog. The plants and the furniture look wonderful in her apartment.

      (The second sentence refers to the specific plants and the furniture that she ordered.)

      3. A reference can be made specific by an adjectival phrase or clause that comes after the noun. The phrase or clause limits it to something specific and unique.

      The dogs that belong to the night guard have been trained to attack.

      (We know specifically which dogs – the ones that belong to the night guard.) The furniture in the shop window is on sale this week.

      (Again, we know specifically which furniture is being referred to.)

      C. Nonspecific and Generic Reference with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

      The choice of article with common nouns depends on several factors; whether the noun referred to is specific or nonspecific, whether the noun is countable or uncountable; and if countable, whether the noun is singular or plural in form. When both writer and reader do not identify a noun as something known, unique, or familiar, the reference is nonspecific.

      1. Use a/an with a singular countable noun when the noun referred to is nonspecific.

      My neighbor bought л dog.

      (The writer docs not expect the reader to know anything about the dog.)

      I he artist painted ли attractive

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