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      nick monaco and samuel woolley

      polity

      Copyright © Nick Monaco and Samuel Woolley 2022

      The right of Nick Monaco and Samuel Woolley to be identified as Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

      First published in 2022 by Polity Press

      Polity Press

      65 Bridge Street

      Cambridge CB2 1UR, UK

      Polity Press

      101 Station Landing

      Suite 300

      Medford, MA 02155, USA

      All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

      ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-4358-8 (hardback)

      ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-4359-5 (paperback)

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

      Library of Congress Control Number: 2021949069

      by Fakenham Prepress Solutions, Fakenham, Norfolk NR21 8NL

      The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate.

      Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been overlooked the publisher will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent reprint or edition.

      For further information on Polity, visit our website: politybooks.com

      At this point, it’s hard to believe there was ever a time in my life when I hadn’t heard the word “bot.” The last decade of research and learning has been a thrilling journey, and I’m grateful for all the wonderful people I’ve met along the way. In no particular order, I want to express my deepest thanks to Tim Hwang, Marina Gorbis, John Kelly, Vladimir Barash, Camille François, Phil Howard, Clint Watts, Mark Louden, Frieda Ekotto, Helmut Puff, Roman Graf, Ralph Hailey, Rosemarie Hartner, Chou Changjen, Yao Yuwen, and Yauling and Joel for their support, guidance, and encouragement. I’m continually inspired by all the courageous journalists, activists, and researchers I’ve worked with over the years, especially my colleagues and friends in Taiwan – your work changes lives. A huge thanks to my friends Sam C., Nate, Amanda, Ike, Anj, Sylvia, Quin, Renata, Samantha, Jake, Jackie, Skyler, Trevor, Jane, and Doug for making life so full and always being up for an interminable conversation. My co-author, Sam Woolley, you’ve been an incredible friend and colleague, and I’m already looking forward to our next project. Lastly and above all, I’m most grateful to my wonderful family – Mom, Dad, Grammy, Mark, Ben, Britnea, Franki, Rocco, Benni, Murphy, Andi, and all the Monacos and Carmacks. Your love has made me who I am. There’s no better family on Earth.

       Nick

       Sam

      AI – Artificial Intelligence

      ANT – Actor Network Theory

      ASA – Automated Social Actors

      CUI – Conversational User Interface

      GPU – Graphics Processing Unit

      GUI – Graphical User Interface

      HCI – Human–Computer Interaction

      HMC – Human–Machine Communication

      IO – Information Operations

      IRC – Internet Relay Chat

      ML – Machine Learning

      MT – Machine Translation

      MUD – Multi-user domain, multi-user dungeon

      NLP – Natural Language Processing

      RES – Robot Exclusion Standard

      STS – Science, Technology, and Society studies

      The 2020 United States presidential election was one of the most impassioned in the country’s history. President Donald Trump and his Democratic opponent Joe Biden both contended they were fighting for nothing less than the future of American democracy itself. The election brought with it several events rarely seen in the history of American democracy – an election held in the middle of a global pandemic, citizens’ storming of the US Capitol, and attempts by a sitting president to overturn the results of a free and fair election. Unprecedented events weren’t only taking place offline, however – social bots, or computer programs posing as humans on social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook, were beginning to use artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to fly under the radar of security teams at social media platforms and target voters with political messages. One of the leading bot detection experts in the US bluntly admitted,

      Back in 2016, bots used simple strategies that were easy to detect. But today, there are artificial intelligence tools that produce

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