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Friedrich Schiller was a German philosopher, poet, and playwright during the late 1700's. Schiller was in the army when he began writing his first plays. His superiors found his first composition and immediately told him that he was no longer allowed to write anymore. In response, Schiller deserted the army, moved to another country, and began writing under a false name. During this time, Schiller became close with famed playwright Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Along with Goethe, Schiller was a deep-thinker on ethics and aesthetics. His beliefs held that beauty is not just an aesthetic experience; beauty is connected with goodness. He also was preoccupied with the morals of human freedom and how the will for freedom conflicted with self-preservation or martyrdom. Both Schiller and Goethe had a complex relationship with Immanuel Kant's philosophies, though they respected Kant for his influence on the subject of aesthetics. Some critics and philosophers have looked at Schiller's works such as the ones present in «Aesthetical and Philosophical Essays» and believed that Schiller's ideas have the potential for being very useful to society. Because Schiller believed that the aesthetic function of beauty could release mankind from struggle, some have argued that his views could ultimately change the world if adopted by all people. While Schiller is not seen as one of the foremost thinkers on ethics and aesthetics, he certainly proved his intelligent ideas and critiques of the subjects with works such as this one.

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Considered one of the most important works of literature in Western Civilization, Desiderius Erasmus's essay, «Praise of Folly», is a classic satirical work in the style of Lucian, the ancient Greek, in which the Goddess of Folly extols the virtues of frivolousness and indulgence of ones passions and then turns to a satirical examination of Christian piousness. In a humorously satirical way, «Praise of Folly» examines the abuses of power of the Roman Catholic Church at the time and is seen as one of the major catalysts for the Protestant Reformation.

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It was called «The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music.» In a preface, subsequently published, the author, whose style had in the mean time undergone a complete transformation, bids us observe that «behind this questionable book lay a problem of the first rank and enticement, but likewise a deep personal interest.» Certain is it that in «The Birth of Tragedy» we may discern «that unbodied figure of the thought, which gave it surmised shape.»… Nietzsche's grasp of the whole Greek literature is masterly. But even more remarkable is the insight which leads him to deal with it as a symbol and expression of that complex world which we know as the life of the Greeks.—From the Quarterly Review, 1896.

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Considered one of Friedrich Nietzsche's most important works, «The Genealogy of Morals» is a collection of three essays concerning the author's «thoughts on the origin of our moral prejudices.» In the three essays («Good and Evil, Good and Bad», " «Guilt, Bad Conscience, and the like», and «What is the meaning of ascetic ideals?») Nietzsche reflects upon the genealogical hypothesis of morality put forth in Paul Rée's work «The Origin of the Moral Sensations». Finding this theory unsatisfactory, Nietzsche calls for an examination of moral values themselves; writing that «the value of these values themselves must be called into question.»

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A classic treatise of the philosophy of Stoicism, «Tusculan Disputations» are a series of books written by Cicero around 45 BC with the intent of popularizing philosophy in Ancient Rome. «Tusculan Disputations» consists of the following five books, which are presented here in their entirety: 1. On the Contempt of Death., 2. On Bearing Pain., 3. On Grief of Mind., 4. On Other Perturbations of the Mind., and 5. Whether Virtue Alone Be Sufficient for a Happy Life.

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In 1781, Immanuel Kant published his first and most famous work, the «Critique of Pure Reason.» To the German philosopher's dismay, the work was at first poorly received and largely misunderstood by his readers. As a result, two years later Kant produced his «Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics that will be Able to Present Itself as a Science» to serve as an introduction to the «Critique.» He restated the main ideas of his philosophy in what Schopenhauer, in 1819, declared was «the finest and most comprehensible of Kant's principal works, which is far too little read, for it immensely facilitates the study of his philosophy.» Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was considered to be one of the most important and influential figures in Western philosophy for his work in the areas of metaphysics, anthropology, theoretical physics, logic, and moral philosophy. Remarkably, Kant never left the town of Königsberg, Germany, where he had been born, received schooling, and served as lecturer at the University for many years.

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German philosopher and significant 18th century late Enlightenment thinker Immanuel Kant wrote «Critique of Judgment» in 1790 to solidify his ideas on aesthetics. Divided into two sections, one on aesthetic judgment and the other on teleological judgment, «Critique» proceeds to analyze the human experience of the beautiful and the sublime. From the effect of art and nature to the role of imagination, from objectivity of taste to the limits of representation, Kant investigates a myriad of factors that determine aesthetics. He continues with the connection of aesthetic with morality, disinterestedness, and originality, and consistently bears in mind the interests of reason in his writing. Kant ultimately had a profound impact on the artists, authors, and other philosophers of both the classical and romantic periods, establishing in «Critique» a milestone in critical theory and philosophy.

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French philosopher Henri Bergson produced four major works in his lifetime, the second of which, «Matter and Memory», is a philosophical and complex nineteenth century exploration of human nature and the spirituality of memory. In this work, Bergson investigates the function of the brain, and opposes the idea of memory being of a material nature, lodged within a particular part of the nervous system. He makes a claim early in this essay that Matter and Memory «is frankly dualistic,» leading to a careful consideration of the problems in the relation of body and mind. His theories on sense, dualism, pure perception, concept of virtuality and famous image of the memory cone often make Bergson's essay a confusing and challenging existentialist work. However, the years of research and extensive pathological investigations spent in preparation for this and other essays have gained Bergson great distinction as a brilliant, though unjustly neglected, theorist and philosopher.

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Marcus Annius Verus was born in Rome, A. D. 121, and assumed the name of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, by which he is known to history, on his adoption by the Emperor T. Aurelius Antoninus. M. Aurelius was educated by the orator Fronto, but turned aside from rhetoric to the study of the Stoic philosophy, of which he was the last distinguished representative. The «Meditations,» which he wrote in Greek, are among the most noteworthy expressions of this system, and exhibit it favorably on its practical side. The «Meditations» picture with faithfulness the mind and character of this noblest of the Emperors. Simple in style and sincere in tone, they record for all time the height reached by pagan aspiration in its effort to solve the problem of conduct; and the essential agreement of his practice with his teaching proved that «Even in a palace life may be led well.»

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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was considered to be one of the most important and influential figures in Western philosophy for his work in the areas of metaphysics, anthropology, theoretical physics, logic, and moral philosophy. Remarkably, Kant never left the town of Königsberg, Germany, where he had been born, received schooling, and served as lecturer at the University. Despite his provinciality, Kant developed original and comprehensive ideas in the field of politics, including his opposition to democracy, the establishment of lasting world peace, and the development of a political community of constitutional republics, all grounded on the principle of Right. This work contains Kant's «Idea of a Universal Cosmopolitical History, Principles of Political Right, The Principle of Progress,» and his most famous essay, «Perpetual Peace,» the formal exposition of Kant's political idea in which he proposed the creation of a International Federation as a means to secure 'the sweet dream of peace'.

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