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Families & Change. Группа авторов
Читать онлайн.Название Families & Change
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isbn 9781544371252
Автор произведения Группа авторов
Жанр Социология
Издательство Ingram
Family Stress Theory
Ecological/Systems Perspective
Family theorists typically have used an ecological or systems approach (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979) in their conceptualization of families under stress. As a result, families are viewed as living organisms with both symbolic and real structures. They have boundaries to maintain and a variety of instrumental and expressive functions to perform to ensure growth and survival (Anderson, Sabatelli, & Kosutic, 2013; Boss, 1988, 2013). As any social system, families strive to maintain equilibrium. Families are the products of both subsystems (e.g., individual members, dyads) and suprasystems (e.g., community, culture, nation).
Although most general stress theories have focused only on the individual, the primary interest of family stress theory is the entire family unit. Systems theory states that the system is more than the sum of its parts (Anderson et al., 2013; Boss, 2006; Hall & Fagan, 1968). In terms of families, this means that a collection of family members is not only a specific number of people but also an aggregate of particular relationships and shared memories, successes, failures, and aspirations (Anderson et al., 2013; Boss, 1988, 2002). At the same time, systems theory also involves studying the individual to more completely understand a family’s response to stress.
An ecological/systems approach allows the researcher to focus beyond the family and the individual to the wider social system (suprasystem). Families do not live in isolation; they are part of the larger social context. This external environment in which the family is embedded is referred to as the “ecosystem,” according to ecological theory. This ecosystem consists of historical, cultural, economic, genetic, and developmental influences (Anderson et al., 2013; Boss, 1988, 2002). Thus, the family’s response to a stressor event is influenced by living in a particular historical period, its cultural identification, the economic conditions of society, its genetic stamina and resistance, and its stage in the family life cycle.
ABC-X Model
The foundation for a systemic model of family stress lies in Hill’s (1949) classic research on war-induced separation and reunion. Although his ABC-X formulation has been expanded (e.g., Boss, 1988, 2002, 2013; Burr, Klein, & Associates, 1994; McCubbin, & McCubbin, 2013; McCubbin & Patterson, 1982; Walsh, 2013a), it has withstood careful assessment and is still the basis for analyzing family stress and coping (Boss, 2002, 2006; Darling, Senatore, & Strachan, 2012; Lavee, 2013). This family stress framework can be described as encompassing the following components: A (the provoking or stressor event of sufficient magnitude to result in change in a family)–interacting with B (the family’s resources or strengths)–interacting with C (the definition or meaning attached to the event by the family)–produces X (stress or crisis). The main idea is that the X factor is influenced by several other moderating phenomena. Stress or crisis is not seen as inherent in the event itself, but conceptually as a function of the response of the disturbed family system to the stressor (Boss, 1988, 2002, 2006; Burr, 1973; Hill, 1949; Lavee, 2013; Walsh, 2013a; See Figure 1.1.).
Stressor Events
A stressor event is an occurrence that provokes a variable amount of change in the family system. Anything that alters some aspect of the system, such as the boundaries, structures, goals, processes, roles, or values, can produce stress (Boss, 2002; Burr, 1973; Lavee, 2013; Walsh, 2013a). This variable denotes something different than the routine changes within a system that are expected as part of its regular, ordinary operation. This variable is dichotomous, that is, an event either changes or does not change (Burr, 1982). The stressor event by definition has the potential to raise the family’s level of stress. However, the degree of stress is dependent on the magnitude of the event as well as other moderating factors to be discussed. Also, both positive and negative life events can be stressors. Research has clearly indicated that normal or positive life changes can increase an individual’s risk for illness. Finally, stressor events do not always increase stress levels to the point of crisis. In some situations, the family’s stress level can be successfully managed and the family can return to a new equilibrium.
Figure 1.1 ABC-X Model of Family Crisis
Source: Hill, R. (l958). Social stresses on the family: Generic features of families under stress. Social Casework, 39, 139–150. Reprinted with permission from Families in Society (www.familiesinsociety.org), published by the Alliance for Children and Families.
Researchers have attempted to describe various types of stressor events (e.g., Boss, 1988, 2002; Hansen & Hill, 1964; McCubbin & McCubbin, 2013). Lipman-Blumen (1975) described family stressor events in terms of eight dimensions—these have been updated by adding two additional dimensions based on the research literature: (1) internal versus external, (2) pervasive versus bounded, (3) precipitate onset versus gradual onset, (4) intense versus mild, (5) transitory versus chronic, (6) random versus expectable, (7) natural generation versus artificial generation, (8) scarcity versus surplus, (9) perceived insolvable versus perceived solvable (e.g., ambiguous loss), and (10) substantive content (See Table 1.1 for definitions). The type of event may be highly correlated with the family’s ability to manage stress. Other researchers (e.g., McCubbin, Patterson, & Wilson, 1981; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978) have classified stressor events in terms of their intensity or hardship on the family.
One dichotomous classification that is often used by family stress researchers and clinicians is normal or predictable events versus nonnormative or unpredictable events. Normal events are part of everyday life and represent transitions inherent in the family life cycle, such as birth or death of a family member, child’s school entry, and retirement. These normative stressor events by definition are of short duration. Although predictable, such life-cycle events have the potential of changing a family’s level of stress because they disturb the system equilibrium (Anderson et al., 2013; Henry et al., 2015). These events lead to crisis only if the family does not adapt to the changes brought about by these events (Carter & McGoldrick, 1989).
Nonnormative events are the product of unique situations that could not be predicted and are not likely to be repeated. Examples of nonnormative events would include natural disasters, loss of a job, or an automobile accident. Unexpected but welcome events that are not disastrous may also be stressful for families, such as a promotion or winning the lottery. Although these events are positive, they do change or disturb the family’s routine and thus have the potential of raising the family’s level of stress (Boss, 1988; Lavee, 2013).
There has been much interest in the study of isolated versus accumulated stressors. Specifically, life event scholars (e.g., Holmes & Rahe, 1967; McCubbin & McCubbin, 2013; McCubbin et al., 1981) suggest that it is the accumulation of several stressor events rather than the nature of one isolated event that determines a family’s level of stress. The clustering of stressor events (normative and/or nonnormative) is termed stress pileup. An event rarely happens to a family in total isolation. Normal developmental changes are always taking place and nonnormative events tend to result in other stressors; for example, loss of job may result in a family having to move or marital disruption. By focusing only on certain events or stressors, researchers may fail to capture the complexity in the range and clustering of stressors (Pearlin, 1991; Yeh, Arora, & Wu, 2006).
Table 1.1
Source: Adapted from Lipman-Blumen, J. (1975). A crisis framework applied to macrosociological family changes: Marriage, divorce, and occupational trends associated with World War II. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 27, 889–902.
Researchers have also offered alternative perspectives on stressor events. One such alternative is focusing