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Assessment: Best Practices and Recommendations. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4, 72-85.

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      [19] Chapter Two: Power: Discourses of Power

      Introduction

      Individuals with refugee and asylum seeker backgrounds and experiences know about power. They have first -hand experiences of the abject terror and brutality of the powerful who physically and emotionally abused and oppressed them, denied them of their human rights and homelands and condemned them to contribute to the great diaspora in history (see http://www.unhcr.org/en-au/figures-at-a-glance.html). These manifestations of power are overtly brutal, flagrantly uncaring and indifferent to the human misery that is widely inflicted on others. They are also aware of the power of dominant cultural and social mores in the new homeland situations in which they are placed and of the exclusionary discourses and decision making that affect individuals, families and entire communities ( Anders, 2012; Anders & Lester, 2015; Bevir, 1999). This chapter examines the discourses of power, epistemologies and societal control as manifested in the educational institutions of the western societies in which students with refugee and asylum seeker backgrounds are placed. This examination mainly focusses on aspects of the theoretical work of Foucault and reflects the implications of these discourses for individuals, families and entire communities.

      Foucault: Discourse and Power

      In current educational contexts, there appears to be an increased focus on the work of Foucault (Leask, 2012), with much of the discussion extrapolating Foucault’s notion of institutional power (Foucault, 1977; 1991) and its capacity to regulate human behaviour and diminish the capacity of individuals for agency or personal intent. Tait (2013), comments on Foucault’s work in education indicating,

      Rather than concentrating on issues of power and inequality, this paradigm focusses instead on the techniques and practices by which we are shaped as particular types of individual, and by which we have our conduct regulated (p.4).

      [20] While Foucault’s work is often considered to be open to interpretation (Ball, 2012), his contribution to understanding the mechanisms of modern power play in educational contexts is important however, as much of what constitutes institutional power has the capacity to challenge, if not exclude, the possibility of authentic educational opportunities for many students with refugee and asylum seekers backgrounds. It also provides one avenue by which the structures, regulations and management systems that have become so integral to educational institutions as to become invisible and invincible to those who are the products and participants of them, can be critically examined and evaluated in relation to their stated purposes, to their officially articulated roles in societies and to their function as arbitrators of epistemologies and intelligences. In many ways, it appears that this endeavour reflects much of the entire purpose of Foucault’s work.

      In order to do this effectively, it is important to determine which interpretations of some of Foucault’s key terms are most suitable for this purpose. For example, his use of discourse is not limited to the linguistic interchange that occurs. Rather, Foucault uses the term ‘discourse’ in a way that takes into consideration the context, the content

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