From Paideia to High Culture - Imelda Chlodna-Blach Philosophy and Cultural Studies Revisited / Historisch-genetische Studien zur Philosophie und Kulturgeschichte

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That is why Plato claimed that satisfying the tastes of the masses made the true education of man, based on the criterion of permanent values, impossible.158 He wrote that a philosopher was a man who carried a reliable paradeigma, namely an idea of good, in his own soul.159 Due to the ability to perceive the indicated norm, the philosopher outweighs an ordinary politician. He subordinates all his activities to the cognition of good as the highest goal of man. For Plato, it was an ideal of a perfect ruler.160 Additionally, the philosopher was ←48 | 49→also a man of high culture for Plato. The features characterizing him are: excellent memory, cleverness, quickness of mind, desire for knowledge and perseverance. He is not small-minded and he does not focus on details or external goods. He values the truth, justice, valour. He controls himself. The aforementioned features are crucial to achieve a higher intellectual culture. Education and a long experience play a vital role in the development of such a person.161 Among other things, the indicated factors provide a balance between the intellectual and moral side. It is important due to the fact that, according to Plato, the process of cognition must be accompanied by the development of character. An ideal form of a society which is indispensable for the complete development of an individual’s abilities called upon by nature to philosophy is an ideal state of Plato.162 It allows a philosopher to pass from contemplation to action. At first, he shapes his own character (heauton plattein) to be able to develop the characters (ethe) of others.163 The Platonic philosopher is an embodiment of kalokagathía – the highest ideal of humanity, typical for a classical era of the Greek culture. Plato transforms here the existing epic – a heroic ideal model of man into a new philosophical ideal. However, frequent references to the principles of the old chivalric ethics are very clear, as for example the requirement to be persistent (menein) in both learning and in fight. The aforementioned principles were transferred by Plato into the realm of the spirit. The similarity found here lies in the fact that just like the Greek education stemmed from the layer of ancestral nobility, Plato’s entire process of education aimed at the formation of a new aristocracy of the spirit. Through the conscious exploitation of education to implement a particular ideal model of man, the Platonic philosophy of education fell within the trend of humanism, characteristic to the entire Greek culture. Its purpose is the full development of man in man. Everything present in a human being is subordinated by it to his rational component, leading to a completely different notion of life – as bíos164 and a true human perfection. The Greek state thought ←49 | 50→shaped the western concept of a free personality as well, that was not based on the human law but on the cognition of the eternal norm, which was the purpose of the entire Platonic philosophy of education.

      In the writings of Aristotle kalokagathía completes all virtues. It is reached when detailed virtues are achieved. It refers to decent good that is the goal in itself.165 Stagirite uses the following words to define man with the most perfect of virtues, namely the noble man: “A person is a noble person because of possessing those goods that are noble for their own sake, and because of doing noble deeds for their own sake. What things, then, are noble? The virtues and the works of virtue.’166 He mentions justice and moderation among the indicated virtues. Therefore, nobility is the complete perfection.167

      It is the feature of young people who have the character and display thinking typical of free people.168 Kalos denotes the behaviour which complies with virtues, the highest happiness, everything that is to be done in line with one’s will.169 In Politics, Aristotle associates the term kalokagathía with people who belong to noble families.170 Additionally, he points out that it guarantees the good life in the state: “The end of the city-state is living well, then, but these other things are for the sake of the end. So political communities must be taken to exist for the sake of noble actions, and not for the sake of living together.’171 Thus, the realization of beauty is the accomplishment of the morally beautiful deeds that, on the one hand, allow to shape people who are friendly to one another, on the other hand, however, make it possible to activate the purely human acts in man.

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      The possession of ethical excellence (kalokagathía) is a prerequisite for the sense of self-worth and a justified pride, called by Aristotle magnanimity172 (Gr. megalopsychía, Lat. magnanimitas). Magnanimity was known long before the appearance of Aristotle’s ethics. In Homer’s poetry, magnanimity appears as a feature of heroes (Achilles, Odysseus and others) in the form of the aristocratic pride. Homer does not know the word “magnanimity.” He speaks not of the “great spirit” but of the “great heart” (megas thymos) of his protagonists.173 The aim (duty) of knights of noble birth is to apply for the laurel of primacy. In consequence, they gain reverence and fame. The constant striving for the highest bravery and consequently for great fame is boosted by the very sense of pride. In addition, it guarantees integrity and moral perfection of a well-born man who could not deserve the highest honour if he behaved inappropriately in any sphere of life.174

      Plato used the word megalopsychía to define “arrogance” (“ambition’) – Greek aphrosyne.175

      For Aristotle, the term areté has a strictly moral connotation – it denotes every individual virtue, not only bravery. Despite the fact that there was a crisis of the ←51 | 52→heroic bravery in his times, thinking about the heritage of ancestors and their areté becomes a model of not only an aristocratic but also a democratic education. For Aristotle then, magnanimity denotes a sort of greatness and strength of the spirit. The justifiably proud man is the one who, while considering himself worthy of great things, actually deserves them (he thinks that he deserves what he is actually worthy of). The justified pride is a belief that one is able to do great things and it is the feature of the man who trusts his own power.176 Knowing oneself is a prerequisite of magnanimity. It constitutes the basis of the good self-esteem. As Aristotle writes: “[…] Vain people, however, are foolish, and ignorant of themselves quite obviously so.’177 In order to develop, one must therefore face the truth about oneself. Humility, which is a condition for the acceptance of truth, is very helpful at this point. It prevents us from striving for what is beyond our capacities. We must be aware of our own powers with regard to what is beyond their grasp.

      Therefore, magnanimity refers to great things. A magnanimous man has the ability to correctly evaluate great and small goods. The following questions arise here: what are the great things which make the soul great (magna anima)? What is the subject of magnanimity?

      Aristotle explains that great goods are the ones which are aimed at by a person who has the best disposition for it, namely, the virtue of magnanimity.178 It is necessary to recall the hierarchy of goods by Aristotle to understand what the great goods are.179 The goods mentioned by him include what is morally beautiful (bonum honestum), then what is useful (bonum utile) and subsequently what is pleasant (bonum delectabile). The decent good is ranked the highest in this hierarchy since it is most suited to the specific functions of man (it draws him closer to the ultimate goal). This specific human function is rational acting, whereas the specific function of a brave man is the same type of action performed in a particularly good manner.180 Thus, the subject of magnanimity is the decent good because it is the only good that can improve the soul (move closer to happiness). It is desired for its own sake, it is not easy but it is very honourable. Virtue constitutes such good because it is a perfection of a particular power, ←52 | 53→which realizes itself (improves) not through any action but through the great or difficult act.181

      Striving for great goods is difficult, that is why the virtue of magnanimity is also helpful in overcoming the difficulties. Although Aristotle distinguished many virtues and grouped them according to the division of powers of the spirit, which they improve, he realized that moral conduct was marked by unity. All virtues are linked by the fact that the essence of each of them is constituted by the internal measure, the maintenance of which depends on a particular

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