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professional organizations including ACM, the IEEE Computer Society, SIAM, AFIPS, and the Computing Research Association. While we occasionally discuss the relations of these organizations to NSF, we have not identified and analyzed the many connections among the various players in this milieu and NSF. Nor have we tried to evaluate their relative contributions and merits.

Our primary focus has been on CISE (created in 1986) and its predecessor organizations, such as the Office of Computing Activities (OCA, created in 1967) and the Office of Science Information Services (OSIS). However, computing activities within NSF often extended beyond the boundaries of OCA and OSIS.¹⁰ We mention these, but typically do not follow them in the same detail that we give to CISE and its predecessors.

      Readers will find that there is some variation in the nature of the three main parts of this book, and even variation in style among its individual chapters. We wrote some chapters as participant accounts, but wrote others more objectively as historians who did not directly participate in the events described. In parts of Chapters 3, 4, and 9, for example, Peter Freeman writes from the perspective of a direct participant; in Chapter 12, he reflects on his time as the AD/CISE. In Chapters 1 and 2, Rick Adrion draws upon his early role as a program director and on his later key management experience at NSF to tell the story of critical events before and after CISE was created. In Chapter 13, Freeman and Adrion reflect on the history of NSF and computing to identify some themes that may help in future understanding. William Aspray, who has never been employed by NSF, has worked as both an historian and as the executive director of the Computing Research Association (CRA—one of the major non-profit players in Washington on computing research policy). The chapters he wrote on CISE’s role in the development of modern computing are informed by this perspective.

      While there has been coordination among the authors to ensure thorough coverage of the history of computing at NSF in the period from 1950 to 2016, this book is best read as a collection of linked essays rather than as a tightly written monograph. The three authors each have their individual voices, and no effort has been made to harmonize them completely. While we have all read and critiqued each other’s chapters, we did not have a goal of forging a unified position throughout.

      Our book is composed of distinct parts that present the results of our work on our project over the past two years. Part I provides a narrative of the history of NSF’s involvement in the world of digital computing, especially as it relates to the funding activities of CISE and its predecessors. (Table P.1 gives a timeline of some of the key events in this narrative, to assist in comprehending some of the milestones passed.) Part II goes into more depth on a selected set of important topics. Part III provides our conclusions, and the appendixes present NSF organizational charts over time, a list of the interviews we conducted, a non-exhaustive set of short biographies, a description of the archive we prepared, and a list of abbreviations and acronyms,

      Before providing a guide to using this book, we provide very short characterizations of each of the 13 chapters.

      Chapter 1 covers computing activities related to science information, facilities, education, and basic research in the period from 1950 to 1974. The most active early support entailed providing science information and support for research in information retrieval, databases, and computational linguistics. Computing facilities and education were supported more heavily than computing research, but did enable the creation of some of the earliest computer science academic departments. Creation of the Office of Computing Activities (OCA) in 1967 was a landmark development because it strengthened support for computing research and provided organizational status; that resulted in stronger ties to other NSF programs and the NSF imprimatur to fledgling academic computer science departments.

Table P.1Select events in the history of NSF and computing, 1950–2008

Year	Event
1950	NSF enabling act signed in November; operations begin in 1951
1951	Office of Science Information (OSI) created
1953	Assistance given to buy computer for research
1954	First training/education grant.
1955	von Neumann panel recommends research on design of computers; National Science Board approves facilities program
1957	First grants for computing research
1958	Office of Science Information Services (OSIS) created; NSF expands computing facilities, research and education investments
1963	Early Training grants led to the first CS curricula and departments
1966	Rosser Report
1967	Pierce Report; Office of Computing Activities (OCA) created
1974	Division of Computer Research (DCR) created, then recreated in 1984
1978	Theorynet and Debate on Public Cryptography
1980	CER (experimental research) and CSNET (networking) programs begin
1984	Supercomputer Centers created and NSFNET begins
1986	CISE created
1995	NSFNET converted to Internet
1999	ITR program started
2003	Major reorganization of CISE
2004	GENI Program started
2005	Broadening Participation Program started
2005	Office of Cyberinfrastructure (OCI) created in O/D
2006	CCC created
2008	Expeditions in Computing, Cyber-Enabled Discovery programs begin
2013	OCI moved from O/D to CISE as Division of Advanced Cyberinfrastructure (ACI)
2016	ACI made into an office (OAC) within CISE to provide better connection with rest of NSF

      Chapter 2 covers the years from 1974 until the founding of CISE in 1986. In addition to organizational changes and further strengthening of computing programs, there was support for efforts to professionalize

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