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cultural crises, however, have nurtured a renewal of apocalyptic theologies, especially among Protestant evangelical and fundamentalist theologians in the Americas and the United Kingdom. Elements of apocalyptic theology are also present in many popular notions of the end of history.

      In many respects all Christian theology is generally “apocalyptic” in the sense that the fulfillment of history depends upon the actions of God. Contemporary apocalyptic theology, however, expresses belief that signs point to a series of events that will bring history to a dramatic climax in which God triumphs over evil (Satan, death, and sin) to usher in a millennium of peace.

      Apocalyptic theology affirms the essential principles of the theology of history promoted by Charles Nelson Darby and Lewis Sperry Chafer. Its basic tenets are included in the notes of the Scofield Reference Bible and the Ryrie Study Bible. Its intellectual centers abide at Dallas Theology Seminary and Liberty University (Lynchburg, Virginia). Popular versions of apocalyptic theology appear in Hal Lindsay’s The Late Great Planet Earth (25 million copies sold) and the “Left Behind” series of novels by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins (sales of 50 million copies).

      Key assumptions of apocalyptic theology in the twenty-first century include at least the following: (1) global history has been scripted into seven periods; (2) the current period, the seventh and final one, will soon draw to a close; (3) seminal biblical texts (especially Ezekiel 38–39, Zechariah 9–14, Daniel, I Thess. 4:13-18 and 5:1-11, and Revelation) foretell specific historical events that immediately precede “The End”; and (4) certain signs (intensification of natural catastrophes, social disruptions, political and economical alliances, and the reestablishment of the state of Israel) portend “The End.”

      Apocalyptic theologians are hopelessly pessimistic about the human present but are vibrantly optimistic about the complete victory of the sovereign God who will suddenly intervene in human history and who will triumph over the forces of evil.

      Once ignored as a fringe theology, apocalyptic theology has become one of the mainstreams of popular Anglo-American eschatological thought since the 1970s. This fact has had important political, social, and ecclesiastical implications. (1) Apocalyptic theologians believe that the Bible predicted that Israel would once again become a sovereign state and that events in Israel would present “signs” of “The End.” This “Christian Zionism” has resulted in fervent political support on religious grounds for the state of Israel. (2) Coupled with a view that a “Christian America” has a potentially positive role in God’s end-time activities, apocalyptic theologians have often supported political activity (e.g., the Moral Majority, religious right) that is “pro Christian.” Some support a “christianized” America (a theocratic notion associated with the “dominion theology” of Rousas John Rushdoony). Other proponents of apocalyptic theology remain passive with regard to political activity. (3) Apocalyptic theology believes that events leading to “The End” will be attended by armed violence. As a result, apocalyptic theology has not been vocal in Christian peace movements. (4) Neither has apocalyptic theology been supportive of Christian advocacy for environmental issues. If “The End” is at hand, the conservation of nature hardly seems relevant.

       DONALD W. MUSSER

      Bibliography

      National Liberty Journal, Jerry Falwell, editor.

      Donald Wagner, “Evangelicals and Israel: Theological Roots of a Political Alliance,” The Christian Century (November 4, 1998): 1020-26.

      “The Bible and the Apocalypse,” Time (July 2, 2002): 40-53.

      Cross-Reference: Dispensationalism, Eschatology, Evangelicalism, Fundamentalism, Peace, Violence.

      APOLOGETICS

      From time to time a representative of a given religion is invited (and occasionally required) to speak as an advocate or defender of the representative’s faith in a public forum. The occasion may arise as a result of a clash of religious options that a particular group wishes to resolve or as a result of a new philosophical insight that seems at odds with an earlier religious consensus. In recent times, the occasion has often been the result of a new scientific theory or a sociological change that calls into question the prevailing religious view. And postmodern critics, who sense the failure of various modern nontheistic worldviews, have fostered a reexamination of religion as a part of a more comprehensive worldview.

      Whatever the case, the rational advocate or defender of the faith is called an “apologist.” Apologetics is the field of study that examines the methods employed by the apologist. The following historical and modern examples illustrate apologetic methods that have been used.

      In the New Testament, the book of Hebrews is an early example of an apology that addresses the problem of choosing between religious options. It seems to be addressed to persons being forced to choose between Christianity and Judaism although the first Christians understood themselves to be both Jews and Christians. The writer maintains that the essential truth of Judaism has found its fulfillment in Christianity; so the best way to be a true Jew is to choose Christianity and depart from Judaism.

      When they encountered the thought world of Greek philosophy, early Christian theologians learned to use Greek concepts in order to interpret the faith for an audience familiar with Greek terminology. The practice of appropriating philosophical language in defense of the faith reached a climax in the works of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274). Using Aristotelian logic to advocate an ultimate cause of all existing things, he then identified God as this ultimate cause and used the imagery of the Christian religion to give definition to the God thus identified.

      The ascendancy of the theory of evolution in the nineteenth century provides a prime example of a scientific theory that caused a crisis of faith. The discovery of a developmental potential within nature itself made the hypothesis of God as the source of nature’s apparent organization seem unnecessary. The first response of a number of Christians was to question the credibility of science in ways that often undermined their own credibility. Some theologians embraced the theory of evolution creatively. Teilhard de Chardin celebrated the developing structure of nature and saw the love of God as the dynamic source that makes evolution possible. Others devised similar views of God as guiding evolution.

      The emergence of psychology as a field of scientific study exemplifies another crisis for faith. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) devised an explanation of religion as a human invention that addresses deep psychological needs for security. Paul Tillich, on the other hand, building on Freudian insights, discovered in psychology the existential need to be committed to an ultimate concern. He argued that the courage of faith was necessary to make an authentic (and thus salvific) commitment to the only “true” ultimate, which is God.

      Another great theologian of the twentieth century, Karl Barth avoided apologetics altogether. He regarded faith as pre-rational in the sense that one could not reason to a position of faith. Rather one must be moved to such a position by the power of the Word of God through the medium of Scripture or preaching. Therefore, any effort of human logic or argumentation was of no value in promoting authentic faith. Generally Barth’s approach seems dogmatic and arrogant, for the modern world citizen experiences too many competing worldviews and sociological shifts to embrace any one option precritically.

      Sociological changes also give rise to apologetic reflection. Changing male and female roles in modern society are one example of this phenomenon. The organizational structures of many religions are decidedly paternalistic, The feminist movement reflects a sensitivity to social structures that limit women to secondary roles and incomplete fulfillment of potential. Feminists urge a reformation of such structures in order to provide equality for women; and if such reform is not possible, they often advocate rejection of traditional religion in favor of alternative religions. The apologist seeks to emphasize a liberating heritage within religious structures as a basis for advocating new opportunities for women or runs the risk of alienating increasing numbers of women.

      Advocates of a postmodern view indicate that modern worldviews that looked to science and technology

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