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Earth, which was the best-selling book of the decade.

      Since the mid-1960s dispensationalists have debated the limits of doctrinal development within their system, and they have discussed which elements are nonnegotiable. In Dispensationalism Today (1965), Charles Ryrie argued that the sine qua non of dispensationalism had three aspects: the distinction between Israel and the church, the commitment to the “normal or plain” interpretation of the Bible, and the belief that there was an underlying doxological purpose in all God’s dealings with humanity. But other dispensationalists have challenged his position. It is not unusual now for dispensational theologians to question the complete separation of Israel and the church, the necessity to interpret the Bible literally, and the suitability of using the notion of dispensations as the organizing principle for theology. In short, if the current revisionism continues, dispensationalists will find it difficult to distinguish themselves from other kinds of conservative and evangelical theologians.

       TIMOTHY P. WEBER

      Bibliography

      Craig Blaising, “Development of Dispensationalism by Contemporary Dispensationalists,” Bibliotheca Sacra 145 (July-September 1988): 254-80.

      Lewis Sperry Chafer, Systematic Theology, 4 vols.

      D. P. Fuller, Gospel and Law.

      C. N. Kraus, Dispensationalism in America.

      C. C. Ryrie, Dispensationalism Today.

      Cross-Reference: Apocalyptic Theology, Eschatology, Fundamentalism, Pentecostalism.

      DIVERSITY

      Diversity is a concept that acknowledges a broad range of differences among human beings. Human differences are often classified according to socioeconomic status, ethnicity, culture, religious or spiritual beliefs, sexual orientation, gender, political orientation, region, age, and mental or physical abilities. These classifications of distinctiveness present both peril and promise. They can be used as leverages of coercive power to label, marginalize, and exclude dissenting voices. By contrast, acknowledging and celebrating differences can also transform and enrich human life.

      Biblical portrayals of diversity, though varied and complex, provide provoking examples of both sensitivity and exclusion. Biblical characters ranging from Abraham, who left the familiar to claim a promise, to Paul, who affirmed that “we are all one in Christ Jesus,” wrestled with living in diverse worlds. Throughout Scripture, stories portray men and women encountering new life experiences that could not be explained by their worldviews, struggled with the inconsistencies, and emerged with more inclusive attitudes, values, and behaviors. For example, the book of Acts describes the apostle Peter’s revisioning of fidelity to Christ and Jewish law through dreams and personal encounters with Gentiles. He proclaimed a new understanding of God’s accessibility not only to Jews, but to all persons. By contrast, other stories display how similar challenges prompted little change from pious persons. For instance, the prophet Jonah’s reluctance to proclaim God’s message to a rival nation underscores the difficulty of adapting inclusive ideas and behaviors.

      The life and teaching of Jesus provide additional perspective. Luke’s Gospel locates Jesus as one who challenges the cultural norms of Jews in an occupied land. Jesus is portrayed as one who recognizes marginal people and reframes their status in the community. He dines with a detested publican, welcomes the embrace of children, and instructs men with leprosy to reenter their community. He heals a woman of her physical infirmity while naming her one of the community, a “Daughter of Abraham”—much to the confusion of the observant and faithful. Jesus banters with a Syrophonecian woman about the inclusiveness of God. He chooses the court of the Gentiles at the Temple as the site to proclaim, “My father’s house is a house of prayer for all nations.” His words and actions defy the current understanding of faithfulness. He affirms human life and rebukes practices of oppression. Even his own disciples fail at times to grasp that transformation is accessible to many, rather than to a select few.

      Like biblical stories, contemporary Christian theology provides examples of both empowerment and oppression. For many, the church has fostered an enabling community that affirms individual worth and challenges the structures of discrimination. As examples, the Society of Friends advocated the abolition of slavery, and African American churches provided both a physical and spiritual home for the Civil Rights movement in the United States. However, the church has also denied others basic membership in society. Women and people of diverse ethnic and racial groups have been excluded from congregational membership, participation in sacred rituals, and leadership positions in the church.

      Exclusive theological assumptions have fueled diverse standpoints that challenge traditional theological thought. Feminist theology, liberation theology, and gay and lesbian theology reflect the refusal of oppressed Christians to be silenced or defined by the theologically elite. Some of these perspectives maintain the authority of Scripture while reinterpreting passages that affirm their dignity and worth. Other perspectives recognize the oppressive interpretations of Scripture and reconstruct or analyze Scripture in light of sexism, racism, and sexual elitism. Still other discourses allow for the expression of multiple diversities, acknowledging that there are many ways to construct personal and theological identities.

      Ancient biblical narratives and contemporary theologies illustrate that responding to a diverse world requires self-reflection, congruence in thought and action, and persistent commitments to community change. Liberation theology, feminist theology, and gay and lesbian theology seek an earnest appraisal of one’s personal beliefs and lifestyle, examining one’s personal relationships to privilege and oppression. Each consistently provides an opportunity to integrate personal ideology with transforming action so that personal and corporate elements of life are integrated. Each also includes plans for more equitable distribution of power and increased resources for disenfranchised groups.

      The complex diversities in contemporary life continue to influence Christian theological perspectives. As globalization increases, theological paradigms for inclusion are being revisited. The words and deeds of Jesus suggest innovative theological responses to diversity in current times. His insightful and inclusive manner provides guiding principles for affirming all persons. His parable of the Good Samaritan suggests that one’s neighbor may be one who thinks and lives in ways unfamiliar to us, yet deserves respect and attention.

       PAULA M. SHERIDAN

      Bibliography

      John B. Cobb, Christian Faith and Religious Diversity: Mobilization for the Human Family.

      Joseph P. Fitzpatrick, One Church, Many Cultures: The Challenge of Diversity.

      Gordon D. Kaufman, God, Mystery, Diversity: Christian Theology in a Pluralistic World.

      John Macquarrie, Christian Unity and Christian Diversity.

      Cross-Reference: Ambiguity, Liberation Theology–Latin American, Pluralism, Ecumenism, Feminist Theology, Gay and Lesbian Theology.

      DOGMATIC THEOLOGY

      Traditionally described as “faith seeking understanding,” dogmatic theology explores reflective insights and generates understanding regarding the dogmas of the Christian church. Dogmas are “the normative statements of Christian belief adopted by various ecclesiastical authorities and enforced as the official teaching of the church” (Jaroslav Pelikan). Dogmatic theology differs from fundamental theology (which argues to the truth claims of faith), from systematic theology (which uses insights and tools from culture), and from practical theology (which considers the ethical stance of responsibility and commitment on social and political problems). Although the term is often expanded today to include the reflective-interpretative enterprise of all the principal world religions, for example Hindu theology or Jewish theology, we are restricting its use here to the Christian tradition.

      Dogmatic

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