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the meaning of which a variety of readers from various backgrounds could understand when they read the Gospel of John. Therefore, to justify my argument, we need to survey two backgrounds of this Gospel: the Jewish and the Graeco-Roman.

      The Kingship Motif and the Jewish Background

Among a variety of terms in the Johannine Gospel, which imply the kingship of Jesus, many of them might come from the Hebrew Bible and other Jewish sources.107 Particularly, Davidic royalty (cf. John 7:42) and the Jewish messianic expectation form a major area of research into the background of the kingship motif in Jewish literature.108 In Jewish literature, kingship is closely related to God and his representatives who ruled ancient Jewish society. Furthermore, this term was also used for the redeemer king.109 Although for nearly 500 years after the fall of Jerusalem there was no king, the Jews expected the emancipation of Israel from foreign power and looked to a leader to come, the Messiah, to be their king in the restoration of the nation. Predictions of the coming king, which includes that of a religious and political leader, are referred to in the Hebrew Bible and Davidic royal terms are employed in passages referring to Israel’s restoration.110 Consequently, the anticipated king would be the political and religious head of the people, as well as a representative of God in order to emancipate them. Some examples in the Hebrew Bible, particularly prophetic passages, are relevant to the discussion in my book.111

Firstly, in Isaiah 9:1–7 the king as the powerful and mighty ruler will establish his kingdom and will sit and reign on the throne of David over his kingdom forever.112 He is “a great light” who will come to the people who walk in darkness (Isa 9:1–2). He will deliver them from the oppression of their oppressor and will end war by destroying the instruments of war (Isa 9:3–4). The Johannine Jesus can be matched to this Davidic kingly figure. As “the light of the world,” Jesus comes to the world in darkness to rescue the people in darkness by non-violent means.113 The Johannine Jesus shows how to be free from oppression (8:32), promises peace which the world cannot give (14:27; 16:33; 20:19, 21),114 and will sit on the throne by glorification through the cross. Moreover, a Davidic Messianic figure in Isaiah 11:1–10 (a shoot from the stem of Jesse115 and a branch from his roots in Isa 11:1, the root of Jesse to whom the Jews and the Gentiles will resort in Isa 11:10) stands for the representative of an enormous social transformation.116 The utopian description in Isaiah 11:1–10 represents a reformed community and a true kingdom of God on earth which is reminiscent of the new world of the Johannine Jesus: the new world in which the center and the margins can live in harmony. Like the king of this utopian nation (the shoot, the branch or the root) who will unite both Jews and Gentiles, the Johannine Jesus comes to his world (1:10) to assemble his flock from among the Jews as well as from amongst other sheep (10:16), and will receive them into heavenly dwelling places (14:2–3).

Secondly, Haggai and Zechariah also describe the king as a religious and political leader.117 Haggai is concerned with the building of the temple by Zerubbabel who is a Davidic prince and the natural leader of the nation. Zerubbabel is made the signet of God (Hag 2:23) and foreign powers would be defeated. Similarly, in Zechariah a man called “the Branch” will build the temple of God and he will be a ruler (6:12–13; cf. 3:8118). The role of the Branch, Zerubbabel, is that of the king. In addition, the king, mounted on a donkey will come to Israel (Zech 9:9), speak peace to the Gentiles and rule the whole world (9:10). The coming king is also related to rescue from oppression and to bringing war to an end (9:8, 10). We can link the Johannine Jesus with the king in Zechariah 9:9–10. Jesus enters into Jerusalem riding on a donkey (John 12:12–19). The multitude welcomes him shouting “Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed [even] the King of Israel.” The multitude regards and welcomes Jesus as the King of Israel. Those prophets who hoped for the restoration of the nation and saw the Branch as a decolonizing king have meaning in terms of the national emancipation. The concept of the king in the post-exilic period of Jewish society is linked to that of the political and religious leader as the decolonizer.119

Thirdly, in Micah 5:1–15 a ruler (מָשַׁל) of Israel (LXX: ἄρχοντα ἐν τῷ Ἰσραηλ) would come not only from Bethlehem Ephrathah but from the beginning (LXX: ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς) and even the days of eternity as well. He was a shepherd who will feed his flock, and bring peace to Israel. The ruler of Israel in Micah 5:1 is also related to the Johannine Jesus.120 In the Gospel of John, the origin of Jesus is “the beginning,” like the ruler of Israel in Micah 5:1, although his origin from Bethlehem is not revealed (cf. 7:41–42). Rather, his Galilean origin is employed in the controversy over his messiahship. His pre-existence in the Gospel might be linked to this verse. The ruler of Israel as a shepherd who will feed his flock foreshadows the Johannine Jesus in the good shepherd discourse in John 10:1–11, and the multitude’s attempt to force him to be their king after he fed them in John 6:1–15. Moreover, the prophecy that the ruler of Israel would bring peace to Israel is also suggestive of the message of Jesus about peace (14:17; 16:33) before his crucifixion and after his resurrection (20:19–23). Consequently, just as Lambert comments that the biblical concept of messianism has two main features (the Messiah as a descendent of King David and as an ideal king),121 it is also fair to say that some of the christological titles of the Johannine Jesus have these two features.

      The Kingship Motif and the Graeco-Roman Background

The kingship of the Johannine Jesus is more deeply revealed when Johannine christological terms and titles are investigated in comparison with terms and titles in the Graeco-Roman world. Research into the relationship between the Gospel of John and the Graeco-Roman world122 reveals terms and titles which were popularly known in Graeco-Roman culture, and might be employed to reveal the identity of Jesus as king in the Fourth Gospel. For example, some specific terms, i.e., the Savior of the World, my Lord and my God, which are employed to confess Jesus as their king by the believers or the crowds might be used to reveal the kingship of Jesus.123 In this section, I will cite some references, which could elucidate the Graeco-Roman background of the kingship of the Johannine Jesus.

Firstly, it is interesting that the term, ἐυεργέτης (benefactor) was a favourite and striking title for the Hellenistic kings and Roman Emperors, whose funcion was linked with that of Jesus in the Johannine narratives (supplying new wine, feeding thousands, 10:1–18, and the passion narrative). The nature and task of the king is revealed clearly in the fact that he is a benefactor to the whole world.124 Danker demonstrates the Graeco-Roman documents, which attest “the consistency of thematic interest and formulaic patterns in language relating to the benefactor figure.”125 Particularly, inscriptions and documents to give honor to kings in terms of benefactor are likely to relate to the kingship of the Johannine Jesus. We can propose that the Gospel of John characterizes Jesus as the “benefactor” par excellence in terms of kingship.

Secondly, the Hellenistic idea of divine kingship

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