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country’s population doubled, an integrated system of waterways was built, the first paper money was issued and commerce increased through trading of necessities and luxury goods. This resulted in an urban revolution where 10 percent of the population lived in cities. The last innovation was the appearance of large-scale industry, such as the production of iron. Some have argued this was the beginning of capitalism.

      HERE COMES THE WEST: THE OPIUM WARS

      Until the latter part of the 18th century, China had little contact with the West. Jesuit missionaries arrived in small numbers in the 15th century but had little impact. For centuries China had contact with other Asian nations, particularly Korea, Japan and Vietnam, but contact with the West was sporadic and minimal.

      By the 1760s, tea imports to Great Britain were far greater than Britain’s exports to China. This trade imbalance had to be made up with British silver. To offset the disparity, Britain began exporting raw cotton from India to China, along with an initially small but lucrative trade in opium, also from India. In time, the opium trade, smuggled into China and distributed by Chinese triads (organized crime gangs) grew until by 1820 the trade imbalance switched in favor of Great Britain. This caused a silver drain in China, making it difficult for peasants to pay their land taxes. Various violent incidents occurred which escalated into the First Opium War (1839–42). The British navy proved far stronger than the Chinese and they took control of ports along the eastern seaboard. In the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, the Chinese opened five ports to foreign trade and residence. These included Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai. The Chinese government set up an office of ‘barbarian affairs’ to deal with the encroaching Westerners.

      The Second Opium War (1856–60) was caused by Britain further encroaching on Chinese territory. With the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, the Chinese agreed to open ten more ports, allowed foreigners, including missionaries, to travel into China’s interior, legalized the opium trade and agreed to a British minister residing in Beijing.

      For most of China’s history, outsiders, whether Asian or European, were considered barbarians with nothing to offer China. It was during the Opium Wars that China realized that its technology, particularly military might, was not up to Western standards. This period in Chinese history marked the beginning of the end of imperial rule in China. As more Westerners arrived in China and trade increased, the Chinese began to realize that a foreign policy of isolationism was not the best way to go. The Manchu government grew increasingly weak and ineffective in ruling a changing China. At the same time, Western powers were forcing China to open up and engage with them.

      British troops land at the western gate of Chinkiang (Zhenjiang) during the First Opium War (1839–42) in their bid to secure ports along the eastern seaboard of China.

      Painting of fighting between British and Chinese troops at Guangzhou during the Second Opium War (1856–60).

      THE LAST EMPEROR AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1911

      On October 10, 1911, now known as ‘Double Tenth’, a rebellion broke out in Wuchang in Hubei Province. The province declared its independence from the empire. By December all other provinces had followed suit. A republic was declared, with Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen), a young revolutionary, as provisional president. However, he was not able to consolidate power and did not last long in this position. By this time in China’s history, the country was fragmented and ruled by regional warlords, former military men under the Qing Dynasty. The Qing rulers appealed to a military commander in the north, Yuan Shikai, to support their rule. Instead, he sided with the new republic and forced the emperor to abdicate the throne. Yuan Shikai ruled first as president, then declared himself emperor (1912–16). His death left a political vacuum and for the next decade the country was ruled by various warlords.

      THE FORBIDDEN CITY: HOME OF CHINA’S EMPERORS

      The Forbidden City sits at the center of the ancient city of Beijing. Built between 1406 and 1420, it was the imperial palace of the Ming and Qing emperors, their families and other appointed political figures. It was the ceremonial and political center of China until the Qing Dynasty fell in 1912. It was called the Forbidden City because it was strictly off-limits to anyone outside the imperial household. no one could enter or leave without the permission of the emperor.

      The palace complex consists of 980 buildings surrounded by a high wall and wide moat. Four towers stand guard at each corner of the huge complex and large gates are situated on each side. The Meridian Gate faces Tiananmen Square and is the entry point to the palace. The complex has an outer court with large ceremonial halls and an inner court with living quarters, kitchens and informal halls. The Forbidden City was named a World Heritage Site in 1987 by UnESCO for its archeological significance. It is the largest collection of ancient wooden structures in the world.

      The Hall of Supreme Harmony, the largest hall within the Forbidden City, where emperors hosted enthronement and wedding ceremonies.

      THE BLOODY TAIPING REBELLION 1849–1864

      As China was reeling after the First Opium War, a young man seized the opportunity of a weakened Qing government to launch the most deadly rebellion in Chinese history. Hong Xiuquan, though from a poor family, received a decent education but failed the imperial examinations twice. After a brief encounter with Protestant missionaries, Hong claims to have met a ‘bearded, golden-haired man who gave him a sword, and a younger man who instructed him to slay evil spirits, who Hong addressed as “Elder Brother”.’ Highly charismatic, Hong convinced people that God and Jesus had appeared to him. Studying with local missionaries, Hong began preaching and gaining converts, openly denouncing Confucianism and ancestor worship. By 1849 he had 10,000 converts and his doctrine was to form a new Christian community in opposition to the Qing government. He attracted young and old, rich and poor, and by 1850 his following had grown to 20,000. He became a significant threat, finally coming to the attention of the weakened Qing government. An attempt by Qing soldiers to oust Hong was met with defeat. Spurred on by this, Hong declared himself the Son of Heaven and his followers the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (or Taipings). By the end of 1853 his following had grown to 60,000. Cities were attacked and many fell with little resistance. The Taipings gathered money, food, weapons and followers and seized Nanjing, killing 40,000 Manchu men, women and children, and openly declaring war on the Manchu government. Hong set up a Nanjing-based Heavenly Kingdom that survived for 11 years, from 1853 to 1864. The rule of the Taipings was extreme: sexes were segregated; opium, prostitution, dancing and drinking were banned; money was collectively shared; examinations were held on the Bible; and women were allowed into the bureaucracy. Yet, they failed to win over the residents of Nanjing and the surrounding countryside, who were resentful of the Taiping’s constant need for food and supplies and their strange ways. Eventually, the Qing crushed the Taipings, in 1864.

      CIVIL WAR AND THE RISE OF THE COMMUNISTS

      The Communist Party of China (CPC) was organized in Shanghai in 1921. From 1928 to 1937, the Nationalists tried to transform China into a modern state based on Western models. This was unsuccessful as there was political fighting with the Communists. In 1931, Japan invaded China. The Nationalists, under the direction of Chang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), were eager to oust the Communists under the direction of Mao Zedong, but after Japan invaded they were forced into a united front with the Communists against the Japanese. When the Japanese were defeated in 1945, the Communists and Nationalists began a full-scale civil war. The Nationalists had their capital first in Nanjing, then retreated to Chongqing before being defeated by the Communists in 1949. The remaining Nationalist troops, along with many civilians,

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