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even their own individual personalities. There are many stories about the spiritual powers and sharpness of exceptional blades. One legend is about the products of two famous swordsmiths, Muramasa and Masume. Two warlords, who each owned a different craftsman’s sword, often argued about who was the most skilled swordsmith. Finally they decided on a test.

      The first held his blade, an excellent katana made by Muramasa, in a swift running stream. A dead leaf drifted against the edge of the sword and was cut cleanly in half. The other put his sword made by Masume in the stream. Instead of being cut, though, the floating leaves passed on either side. They decided that the second blade was superior to the one made by Muramasa because Masume had endowed his blade with a spirit which caused the leaves to avoid its edge.

      This legend speaks volumes in explaining the true nature of Japanese morals and ethics. The skill to create a blade so sharp that it was capable of cutting through even a leaf floating in the stream was obviously highly regarded. However, the blade endowed with a spirit to avoid cutting when unnecessary was even more valued.

      It is clear that the Japanese admired those who avoided the use of the sword if other means were available to resolve their problems. Admiration for the spiritual and moral values of humanity and compassion despite the harsh times and lifestyles are found in many of the stories and records concerning everyday Japanese life during the feudal period.

      Unarmed fighting styles

      Various techniques of unarmed fighting have developed in almost all cultures, but these skills received special attention in Japan. The origins of jujutsu, or unarmed fighting techniques, can be traced back to Japan’s mythological age. The Japanese gods, Kashima and Kadori, were said to have first used jujutsu techniques to punish the lawless inhabitants of the eastern provinces.

      Early traces of the Japanese appreciation for unarmed fighting traditions can be found nearly two thousand years ago when, according to written records, Emperor Suinin ordered two men, Nomi-no-Sukune and Taima-no-Kuehaya, to a wrestling contest. After a lengthy match apparently consisting mainly of kicking, Nomi-no-Sukune gained the advantage over Taima-no-Kuehaya, knocking his opponent to the ground and trampling him to death.

      In the years preceding the Tokugawa Era, Japan was the scene of many lengthy civil wars and continuous strife. It was during this period that kumiuchi, a form of wrestling while both participants are wearing armor, originated for the battlefield. Eventually, the art of kumiuchi advanced to the point that it was not unusual for a weaker opponent to gain victory over a stronger foe, thus encouraging many aspiring warriors to train themselves in this unarmed fighting style.

      Various schools of unarmed fighting sprang up in Japan during the feudal era. The various unarmed fighting styles were known by many different names such as jujutsu, taijutsu, yawara, wajutsu, toride, kogusoku, kempo, hakuda, kumiuchi, shuhaku, judo, and many others, each slightly different applications of nearly identical principles.

      These styles quickly became so intermingled with each other that is virtually impossible to distinguish these styles from one another now. Of these, though, the purpose of toride and kogusoku were primarily to restrain and arrest persons, while the intent of jujutsu and judo was to throw or kill one’s opponent and kempo and hakuda utilized kicks or strikes. In general, all of these styles may be described as unarmed fighting with an armed or an unarmed opponent or the use of a small weapon to overcome an enemy armed with a larger weapon.

      Unarmed fighting styles branched into many different schools. Many of these have little if any reliable records, even regarding their founders, thus making it very difficult to identify the origins. Some accounts credit the development of unarmed fighting styles to techniques imported from China. Based on reliable records, though, other scholars believe that the development of unarmed fighting styles is indigenous to Japan and not based on foreign influences. Whatever side of the debate, the following are some descriptions of just a few of the more well-known schools which started during this period.

      Takenouchi-ryu

      Takenouchi-ryu was founded by Takenouchi Hisamori, a native of Haga village in the province of Mimasaka. During a period of meditation at Sannomiya Shrine in June 1532, he fell asleep after an intensive solitary training session. According to the tradition, a yamabushi, a member of a religious class which frequently traveled throughout Japan, appeared and taught several arresting techniques to Takenouchi. The yamabushi also convinced him of the advantages of small arms over larger weapons. Takenouchi named this style kogusoku, and the art still exists today after many generations of successors.

      Kito-ryu

      Kito-ryu was founded by Terada Kanyemon, a retainer of Kyogoku Tango-no-Kami. He first learned unarmed fighting skills from Terada Heizayemon, who was a teacher of Fukuno-ryu, a school originated by Fukuno Shichiroyemon. (Fukuno Shichiroyemon, along with Miura Yojiyemon and Isogai Jirozayemon, initially studied kempo under Chin Gempin, a Chinese who traveled to Kokushoji Temple at Azabu in Edo during the latter part of the seventeenth century. The three ronin each founded their own jujutsu schools.) After mastering jujutsu skills, Terada Kanyemon founded his own school which he called Kito-ryu. Throwing skills are very prominent in this style, and the katas of Kito-ryu are especially noted for their characteristic throwing techniques.

      Shibukawa-ryu

      The founder of Shibukawa-ryu, Shibukawa Bangoro trained in unarmed fighting skills under Sekiguchi Hachirozaemon, the son of Sekiguchi Jushin. After developing great proficiency, he opened his own school in Edo.

      Yoshin-ryu

      There are two different accounts of the Yoshin-ryu source. The first lists the founder as Miura Yoshin, a physician in Nagasaki. Convinced that physical illness was the result of an imbalance between the use of mind and body, he developed a number of arresting techniques utilizing his principles for resolving this imbalance. Two of his first followers established their own schools after his death which were respectively called Miura-ryu and Yoshin-ryu after the family and given names of the originator.

      An second account claims Akiyama Shirobei Yoshitoki, also a physician from Nagasaki, to be the founder. While studying medicine in China, he also learned several te, or “fighting tricks,” as well as many different resuscitation techniques (kappo). Upon his return to Japan, Akiyama began teaching his fighting style, but was dissatisfied with the limited number of techniques. Determined to improve his fighting proficiency and develop a wider range of techniques, he retired to the Temmangu temple at Tsukushi for several months to meditate and seek inspiration.

      It was a harsh winter, and Akiyama watched as the snow fell on the temple grounds. He noticed the sturdy branches of the surrounding trees often broke and were crushed under the weight of accumulated snow. However, the weaker willow-tree was able to escape this fate due to the suppleness of its branches. The flexible branches bent and gave way as the weight increased, thus allowing them to throw off the snow and spring back after releasing their burden. Akiyama was so impressed by this, he based his new fighting techniques on this concept, giving his sect the narre Yoshin-ryu, which means “willow-heart school.”

      Kushin-ryu

      Kushin-ryu was founded by Inouye Nagakatsu. However, his grandson, Inouye Nagayasu (generally known as Gumbei), was so adept in jujutsu that he is often credited as being the originator. This style closely resembles the Kito-ryu style. It is stated that Inouye Nagayasu trained for some time under Takino, a former student of Kito-ryu. Headquartered in Edo, Kushin-ryu became very popular.

      Tenjin-shinyo-ryu

      Tenjin-shinyo-ryu was founded by Iso Matayemon, a retainer of the Kii clan. A native of the Matsuzaka in Ise province, he studied under Hitosuyanagi Oribe, a master of Yoshin-ryu. Following the death of his teacher, he later studied under Homma Joyemon, an adept in Shin-no-Shinto-ryu. Convinced from his actual fighting experiences that victory required the skillful application of atemi, the art of striking the vital and vulnerable points of an opponent’s body, Iso Matayemon emphasized atemi in the founding of his own style. He called his new style Tenjin-shinyo-ryu, deriving the name partially from both Yoshin-ryu and Shin-no-Shinto-ryu.

      Shinto Muso-ryu

      Although primarily concerned with the arts of the sword

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