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combat. Showing respect towards one’s adversary in a life-and-death situation, and reminding oneself of the grave danger of dropping one’s guard, even for an instant, is the kind of encounter that nurtures a sense of zanshin. I feel his observations of the importance of zanshin is a critical reminder of an all but forgotten element of samurai culture, that once lost, will also lead to a fading in comprehension of the true essence and lessons of bushido.

      When I first came across Dr. Bennett’s theory of zanshin, I was reminded of another Japanese word, mushin (“no-mind”), or mushi (“selflessness”). The term zanshin sounded foreign to my ears, as it does to most Japanese people. In actual fact, zanshin sounds like quite an inconsistent or unstable state of mind to Japanese people, who have long believed that an “empty mind” and “selflessness” is a profound way of living, representing the highest plane of spiritual attainment. How does the lingering mind of zanshin compare with the state of no-mind in mushin? Is it really so important, as Dr. Bennett maintains, that it should be considered the ultimate state of mind in the Japanese martial ways known around the world as budo? These are questions that smolder in the back of my mind. I feel compelled to confess that I have been obsessed with these questions ever since Dr. Bennett brought to my attention the concept of zanshin.

      As I ponder such matters, I am intrigued as to what kind of attitude the author of Hagakure had towards ideals reminiscent of zanshin and mushin. Given his acute understanding of such tensions inherent in the lifestyle of the samurai, it is a point of great interest to me to see how Dr. Bennett interprets Yamamoto Jōchō’s theory of bushido. I look forward to scouring his translation of Hagakure to see how he encountered Yamamoto Jōchō, and communicated with him between the lines of the text.

      Yamaori Tetsuo

      (Former Director of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies)

      June 2, 2013

      Kyoto

      HAGAKURE IN CONTEXT

      There have been many popular movies over the years promoting samurai ideals, including The Last Samurai, starring Tom Cruise and Watanabe Ken. This film sparked a resurgence of interest in samurai ethics. Also of note was the critically acclaimed 1999 film, Ghost Dog, starring Forest Whitaker, which used Hagakure aphorisms as reference points throughout the story about an African-American hit man. He worked for a Mafia mobster, seeing himself as a devoted “retainer,” unflinching in his loyalty to the man who saved his life years ago.

      Despite the noble depictions in modern pop culture and literature, some scholars have described samurai as nothing more than “valorous butchers.” Indeed, there is no denying that throughout Hagakure death sentences are violently dished out for the most trivial of offenses. From the standpoint of contemporary morality, the apparent cheapness of life in samurai society seems truly obscene. Texts such as Hagakure, which advance death so matter-of-factly, shock our sensibilities, especially in an age when people have a propensity to avoid contemplating their own mortality.

      For example, our society denounces suicide, and capital punishment for murder is a highly contentious issue. To the samurai, however, death was celebrated as being integral to their honor and way of life. Attachment to life hindered a warrior during a catastrophe, and so it was deemed virtuous to train one’s mind and spirit to be able to choose death with firm resolve if the situation called for ‘decisive action.’ As such, while the extremist attitudes and scenes portrayed so vividly in Hagakure may repulse the modern reader, the aphorisms provide a window on an age and a society that, although foreign to our own lifestyle, will serve to stimulate readers into contemplating challenging questions regarding the human experience. In order to appreciate the content, it is important to first put things into context.

      The first two books of Hagakure are believed to have been dictated by Yamamoto Jōchō (1659–1719), a middle-ranking retainer of Nabeshima Mitsushige (1632–1700), daimyo of the Hizen (Saga) province, to fellow clansman Tashiro Tsuramoto (1678–1748). Books 3 to 6 are about the Nabeshima lords and episodes that occurred in the Saga domain; Books 7 to 9 delve into the “meritorious feats” of Saga warriors; Book 10 is a critique of samurai from other provinces; and Book 11 provides supplementary information about miscellaneous events and various aspects of warrior culture.

      Although Jōchō undoubtedly provided a fair proportion of the information contained in Book 3 onwards, given that some of the entries relate to people and happenings after his death, Tashiro Tsuramoto clearly pieced together much of the content from other sources. Thus, although the book is commonly attributed to Jōchō, it was ultimately Tsuramoto’s abiding efforts that brought it to fruition.

      Modern interest in Hagakure transpired through a resurgent fascination in the traditions of bushido, ironically after the samurai class had been dismantled as Japan embarked on its quest to modernize. Although the samurai class was brought to an end during the Meiji period (1868–1912), it

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