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      Nō-ningyō: Shakkyō

       Edo period, 19th century

       Height 11 inches

       Ayervais Collection

      Nō-ningyō: Ataka/Kanjinchō

       Edo period, 19th century

       Height 19 inches

       Rosen Collection

      Nō-ningyō: Ataka/Kanjinchō

      Nchningyō, like all mitate (parody) forms, frequently held layers of meaning that escape the modern viewer, tied as they were to issues and themes that were directly of the moment. Dolls in their traditional Western sense seldom contained elements of cultural commentary or social satire. Historically, Western doll makers rarely faced government censure or arrest for their creations. However, in the tightly wound political climate of the Edo period, violations of the strict sumptuary laws governing ningyō could lead to stiff fines, arrest, or banishment of ningyō artists and shop owners, and seemingly benign ningyō forms could well contain subversive elements, tying into contemporary scandals or hinting at taboo subjects.

      Such is the case with the gosho-ningyō shown here depicting the indomitable warrior-monk Benkei (Musashibō Benkei, d. 1189). Stories dating as far back as the thirteenth century telling of his martial prowess and fantastic exploits with his lord Minamoto no Yoshitsune (1159-89) were known to virtually all. However, in 1840, with the premiere of the Kabuki play Kanjinchō (The Subscription List), the image of Benkei took on a stronger political note, challenging the status quo in unexpected ways, and becoming inexorably connected with the political scandal surrounding the celebrated Kabuki actor Ichikawa Danjūrō VII (1791-1859).

      In the play, Yoshitsune is fleeing the capital after being condemned by his elder brother Yoritomo (1147-99). Disguised as yamabushi (mountain ascetics), Yoshitsune and Benkei and their entourage are working their way north to seek shelter from Yoritomo's pursuing troops. They are stopped at the Ataka barrier and questioned by the barrier guard Togashi Saemon. Using his quick wits, Benkei improvises a story to explain their journey. He states that they are traveling the country soliciting funds for the reconstruction of the great Todaiji Temple at Nara. The suspicious Togashi demands to see, as proof, the kanjincho (subscription list) of donors that have responded thus far to their call. Benkei retrieves a blank scroll and begins to dramatically recite the names of virtuous donors from the scroll. Togashi then presses Benkei on several esoteric points about Buddhism in an effort to trick Benkei into revealing himself. Togashi sees through the charade but is so sympathetic to Benkei and moved by his loyalty that he announces the party free to pass. However, as they are moving through the barrier one of the guards spots Yoshitsune posing as a porter near the rear and challenges him. In an effort to prevent Yoshitsune's identity from being revealed, Benkei berates and beats Yoshitsune for causing so much trouble. Again, moved by Benkei's unfailing loyalty, Togashi allows them to pass unhindered.

      Kanjinchō opened to great acclaim in March of 1840 at the Kawarazaki Theater in Edo. Added notoriety came from the fact that Danjūrō had adapted the piece from the revered Noh play Ataka, written by one of the great Noh playwrights of the fifteenth century, Kanze Kojiro Nobumitsu (1435-1516). In the late Edo period, Noh was still held to be the particular purview of the noble and samurai classes, a rarefied realm not meant for the common masses. For Danjūrō to attempt a direct adaptation, in both content and style of performance, was quite a controversial maneuver, one which the government was not inclined to overlook. Although Kanjinchō went on to become one of the classics of the Kabuki theater, it resulted in Danjūrō's immediate expulsion from Edo as punishment for his audacity. His crime: perverting a classical form, mocking his betters by co-opting their cultural symbols.

      Mitate gosho-ningyō: Mōsō

       Edo period, 19th century

       Height 20 inches

       Ayervais Collection

      With this in mind, the nō-ningyō of Benkei on pages 52-3 takes on a different cast and potential meaning. His identity as Benkei in Kanjinchō is clearly evident from his attire as a yamabushi complete with tohin (cap), oi (traveling pack/shrine), the tasseled staff of a traveling monk, and the scroll in his outstretched hand. The date of manufacture, based on the textiles used and the physical characteristics of the ningyō itself, would likely be sometime in the early 1840s, coinciding closely with the Danjūrō/Kanjinchō scandal. By creating such a notable piece of impressive scale and quality, depicting what was most certainly a politically sensitive topic, the ningyō artist was either capitalizing on the scandal du jour, or making a statement in his own right.

      Like Noh, gosho-ningyō were traditionally associated with the nobility As such, they were well suited to the interpretation of Noh subject matter, while ishō-ningyō and other plebian forms were used for Kabuki and more pedestrian themes. Just as Danjūrō flouted convention, so too did the creator of this Benkei tweak the socially segregated mores of the time by taking an essentially imperial form and applying it to Danjūrō's controversial Benkei.

      Mitate Gosho-ningyō: Mōsō

      During the Edo period, Chinese studies, or more specifically Confucianism, were used consciously by the government to legitimize its rule, establish social parameters, and moderate public behavior. The stringent control measures that the government placed upon society at large, generally through the issue of magisterial edicts referred to variously as ofuregaki or ken'yaku, were largely predicated on a Confucian sense of propriety and an individual's place in society, and played a strong role in setting the moral tone and defining relationships during this period. Perceived challenges to public authority or attacks on public morality were usually met with stern morally reasoned legislation. In 1842, for example, in an effort to curtail the "negative" influence of wood-block prints on public mores, the following edict was issued: "To make woodblock prints of Kabuki actors, courtesan, and geisha is detrimental to public morals. Henceforth the publication of new works [of this kind] as well as the sale of previously procured stocks is strictly forbidden. In the future you are to select designs that are based on loyalty and filial piety and which serve to educate women and children. And you must ensure that they are not luxurious." In this way, the government strived to channel art and creativity into more appropriate and constructive directions. "Loyalty" and "filial piety" are words heavily steeped in Confucian moral doctrine, and Confucian-based themes were strongly evident in many Edo art forms. Respect for ones parents was held as a cardinal virtue and considered a basic building block of society. Partially through government directives and partially through the genuine popularity of these themes, Confucian-derived subject matter pervaded Edo culture, both elite and popular.

      The Twenty-four Paragons of Filial Piety (Jp. Nijūshiku-dōji, Ch. Ershisi xiao) are Chinese in origin and were illustrative of ideal forms of respect towards lord and ruler and self-sacrifice in honoring ones parents. The original list was compiled by the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) scholar and poet Guo Jujing as an act of devotion following the passing of his own father. Guo searched back through the early histories to identify individuals, male and female, young and old, who had exemplified loyalty and devotion to their parents. Guo's paragons ranged from individuals who suffered great hardships but never complained, to a clever son who adopted comic poses and wore outrageous costumes to entertain his aged parents and distract them from their advancing years. It included stories of a son risking death at the claws of a ferocious tiger to save his father, and a young boy who exposed his skin to

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