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Naval Conference and the Manchurian Incident, 1928–1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984); and Inoue Mitsusada et al., eds., Kindai 2, vol. 5 of Nikon rekishi taikei (Yarnakawa shuppansha, 1989).

      2. For the “doomed experiment” interpretation, see Michael A. Barnhart, Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security, 1919–1941 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 22–49, 64–114. For the “bold innovation” thesis, see Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), pp. 116–156, esp. pp. 124–136. Discussions of the Manchurian economy in English include W. G. Beasley, Japanese Imperialism 1894–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), pp, 175–197; Kang Chao, The Economic Development of Manchuria: The Rise of a Frontier Economy, Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, no. 43 (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, 1982); F. C. Jones, Manchuria since 1931 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949), pp. 100–220; Ramon H. Myers, The Japanese Economic Development of Manchuria, 1932 to 1945 (New York: Garland, 1982); Na-kagane Katsuji, “Manchukuo and Economic Development,” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895–1937 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 133–158; Ann Rasmussen Kinney, Japanese Investment in Manchurian Manufacturing, Mining, Transportation, and Communications, 1931–1945 (New York: Garland, 1982); and Kungtu C. Sun, The Economic Development of Manchuria in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1973), pp. 75–102. In Japanese see Asada Ky

ji and Kobayashi Hideo, eds., Nihon ieikokushugi no Manshki o chsha, 1986), pp. 547–926; Kobayashi Hideo, “DaiTa kyeiken” no keisei to hkai (Ochanomizu shobd, 1975), pp. 47–91,167–176; Mansh, 1972), pp. 1–211; and Okabe Makio, Mansh, 1978), pp. 75–146.

      3. Representative of the policy studies critical of Manchurian colonization are the essays in Mansh

kaitaku monogatari (Azusa shoten, 1986).

      4. Carol Gluck, ‘The Idea of Showa,” Daedalus 119, no. 3 (Summer 1990), pp. 12–13.

      5. These are the titles of two recent books on World War II that focus on popular support for Japanese expansion in Asia: Takahashi Hikohiro, Minsh no gawa no sens sekinin [The People's War Responsibility] (Aoki shoten, 1989), and Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Kusa no ne no fashizumu: Nihon minsh no sens taiken [Fascism at the Grass Roots: The War Experience of the Japanese People], vol. 7 of Atarashii sekaishi (T

ky daigaku shuppankai, 1987). Two very suggestive applications of this approach to the Manchurian Incident are Eguchi Keiichi, Nihon teikokushugi shiron: Mansh jihen zengo (Aoki shoten, 1975), pp. 149–196, and Away a Kentar, “Fasshoka to minshronsha, 1978), pp. 251–302. Iwanami shoten's recent eight-volume series on Japanese colonialism has expanded on this theme, devoting two entire volumes to “popular” imperialism—vol. 5 on Japanese expatriates in the colonies and vol. 7 on colonialism and popular culture: Oe Shinobu et al., eds., Bch suru teikoku no jinry, vol. 5 of Iwanami kza kindai Nihon to shokuminchi (Iwanami shoten, 1993); and e Shinobu et al., eds., Bunka no naka no shokuminchi vol. 7 of Iwanami kza kindai Nihon to shokuminchi (Iwanami shoten, 1993).

      6. See Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London: Longman, 1972), pp. 1–70,117–142, for samples of this debate. For a summary of the various positions, see Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism, trans. P. S. Falla (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 70–141.

      7. There has been a recent explosion of work on culture and imperialism, largely inspired by Edward W. Said's pioneering study Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978), which was recently reformulated as Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993). Said theorizes the relationship between culture and empire in a sophisticated way, situating cultural production within the institutions of imperial domination. Said is chiefly interested in explaining the structures and conventions of high culture rather than elucidating a theory of imperialism. Thus, his work has introduced a new methodology for studying the impact of imperialism on culture, but is not as helpful for thinking about the relationship the other way around. Several new volumes of essays on the subject are moving in this direction, studying the cultural technologies of colonialism as well as the cultural effects of the colonial encounter. See Nicholas B. Dirks, ed., Colonialism and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), and Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993).

      8. The classic work on social imperialism is Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus (Cologne: Kiepenheuer and Witsch, 1969), a study of Germany's sudden conversion to empire in the late nineteenth century. The argument is summarized in English in Hans-Ulrich Wehler, “Bismarck's Imperialism 1862–1890,” Past and Present, no. 48 (August 1970), pp. 119–155.

      9. Peter Duus's recent work on the social and economic dimensions of empire building in Korea provides strong evidence for including Korea in the category of total empire: Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

      10. Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992), p. 5.

      2 The Jewel in the Crown

       The International Context of Manchukuo

      Japanese expansion in Northeast China in the 193os was part

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