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cases that involve interstate commerce, cases that cross state boundaries, or cases that are offenses against the federal government itself). If federal jurisdiction does not apply, state authorities handle the case using laws passed in a similar manner by state legislators.

      All federal and state laws must comply with the ultimate authority that dictates how the U.S. system of government works—the U.S. Constitution. All laws are subject to judicial review by regional courts with the right of appeal all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. If a court finds that a law is unconstitutional, it has the power to strike it down and render it invalid.

Keep in mind that criminal law is a serious matter. If you find yourself involved—as a witness, defendant, or victim—in a matter where criminal authorities become involved, you'd be well advised to seek advice from an attorney familiar with the criminal justice system and specifically with matters of computer crime. It's not wise to “go it alone” in such a complex system.

      Civil Law

      Civil laws form the bulk of the U.S. body of laws. They are designed to provide for an orderly society and govern matters that are not crimes but that require an impartial arbiter to settle between individuals and organizations. Examples of the types of matters that may be judged under civil law include contract disputes, real estate transactions, employment matters, and estate/probate procedures. Civil laws also are used to create the framework of government that the executive branch uses to carry out its responsibilities. These laws provide budgets for governmental activities and lay out the authority granted to the executive branch to create administrative laws (see the next section).

      Civil laws are enacted in the same manner as criminal laws. They must pass through the legislative process before enactment and are subject to the same constitutional parameters and judicial review procedures. At the federal level, both criminal and civil laws are embodied in the United States Code (USC).

      The major difference between civil laws and criminal laws is the way in which they are enforced. Usually, law enforcement authorities do not become involved in matters of civil law beyond taking action necessary to restore order. In a criminal prosecution, the government, through law enforcement investigators and prosecutors, brings action against a person accused of a crime. In civil matters, it is incumbent upon the person who thinks they have been wronged to obtain legal counsel and file a civil lawsuit against the person they think is responsible for their grievance. The government (unless it is the plaintiff or defendant) does not take sides in the dispute or argue one position or the other. The only role of the government in civil matters is to provide the judges, juries, and court facilities used to hear civil cases and to play an administrative role in managing the judicial system in accordance with the law.

      As with criminal law, it is best to obtain legal assistance if you think you need to file a civil lawsuit or if someone files a civil lawsuit against you. Although civil law does not impose the threat of imprisonment, the losing party may face severe financial penalties. You don't need to look any further than the daily news for examples—multimillion-dollar cases against tobacco companies, major corporations, and wealthy individuals are filed every day.

      Administrative Law

The executive branch of the U.S. government charges numerous agencies with wide-ranging responsibilities to ensure that government functions effectively. It is the duty of these agencies to abide by and enforce the criminal and civil laws enacted by the legislative branch. However, as can be easily imagined, criminal and civil law can't possibly lay out rules and procedures that should be followed in every possible situation. Therefore, executive branch agencies have some leeway to enact administrative law, in the form of executive orders, policies, procedures, and regulations that govern the daily operations of the agency. Administrative law covers topics as mundane as the procedures to be used within a federal agency to obtain a desk telephone to more substantial issues such as the immigration policies that will be used to enforce the laws passed by Congress. Administrative law is published in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).

      Although administrative law does not require an act of the legislative branch to gain the force of law, it must comply with all existing civil and criminal laws. Government agencies may not implement regulations that directly contradict existing laws passed by the legislature. Furthermore, administrative laws (and the actions of government agencies) must also comply with the U.S. Constitution and are subject to judicial review.

      To understand compliance requirements and procedures, you must be fully versed in the complexities of the law. From administrative law to civil law to criminal law (and, in some countries, even religious law), navigating the regulatory environment is a daunting task. The CISSP exam focuses on the generalities of law, regulations, investigations, and compliance as they affect organizational security efforts. Specifically, you will need to

       Understand legal and regulatory issues that pertain to information security in a holistic concept.

       Determine compliance and other requirements that apply to your organization.

      However, it is your responsibility to seek out professional help (i.e., an attorney) to guide and support you in your efforts to maintain legal and legally supportable security.

Laws

      Throughout these sections, we'll examine a number of laws that relate to information technology. We’ll examine several U.S. laws. We'll also look briefly at several high-profile non-U.S. laws, such as the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Regardless, if you operate in an environment that involves foreign jurisdictions, you should retain local legal counsel to guide you through the system.

       Every information security professional should have a basic understanding of the law as it relates to information technology. However, the most important lesson to be learned is knowing when it's necessary to call in an attorney. If you think you're in a legal “gray area,” it's best to seek professional advice.

      Computer Crime

The first computer security issues addressed by legislators were those involving computer crime. Early computer crime prosecutions were attempted under traditional criminal law, and many were dismissed because judges thought that applying traditional law to this modern type of crime was too far a stretch. Legislators responded by passing specific statutes that defined computer crime and laid out specific penalties for various crimes. In the following sections, we'll cover several of those statutes.

       The U.S. laws discussed in this chapter are federal laws. But keep in mind that almost every state in the union has also enacted some form of legislation regarding computer security issues. Because of the global reach of the internet, most computer crimes cross state lines and, therefore, fall under federal jurisdiction and are prosecuted in the federal court system. However, in some circumstances, state laws can be more restrictive than federal laws and impose harsher penalties.

      Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

      The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) was the first major piece of cybercrime-specific legislation in the United States. Congress had earlier enacted computer crime law as part of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act (CCCA) of 1984, but the CFAA was carefully written to exclusively cover computer crimes that crossed state boundaries to avoid infringing on states' rights and treading on thin constitutional ice. The major provisions of the original CCCA made it a crime to perform the following:

       Access classified information or financial information in a federal system without authorization or in excess of authorized privileges

       Access a computer used exclusively by the federal government without authorization

       Use

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