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they vary in terms of the information source being used and in the analysis strategy. Some of them use SCADA network traffic (Linda et al., 2009; Cheung et al., 2007; Valdes and Cheung, 2009), system‐level events (Yang et al., 2006), or measurement and control data (values of sensors and actuators) (Rrushi et al., 2009b; Fovino et al., 2010a,2012; Carcano et al., 2011) as the information source to detect malicious, uncommon or inappropriate actions of the monitored system using various analysis strategies which can be signature‐based, anomaly‐based or a combination of both.

      It is believed that modeling of measurement and control data is a promising means of detecting malicious attacks intended to jeopardize a targeted SCADA system. For instance, the Stuxnet worm is a sophisticated attack that targets a control system and initially cannot be detected by the antivirus software that was installed in the victim (Falliere et al., 2011). This is because it used zero‐day vulnerabilities and validated its drivers with trusted stolen certificates. Moreover, it could hide its modifications using sophisticated PLC rootkits. However, the final goal of this attack cannot be hidden since the manipulation of measurement and control data will make the behavior of the targeted system deviate from previously seen ones. This is the main motivation of this book, namely to explain in detail how to design SCADA‐specific IDSs using SCADA data (measurement and control data), thus enabling the reader to build/implement an information source that monitors the internal behavior of a given system and protects it from malicious actions that are intended to sabotage or disturb the proper functionality of the targeted system.

As previously indicated, the analysis/modeling method, which will be used to build the detection model using SCADA data, is the second most important part after the selection of the information source when designing an Intrusion Detection System (IDS). It is difficult to build the “normal” behavior of a given system using observations of the raw SCADA data because, firstly, it cannot be guaranteed that all observations represent one behavior as either “normal” or “abnormal”, and therefore domain experts are required for the labeling of each observation, and this process is prohibitively expensive; secondly, in order to obtain purely “normal” observations that comprehensively represent “normal” behavior, this requires a given system to be run for a long period under normal conditions, and this not practical; and, finally, it is challenging to obtain observations that will cover all possible abnormal behavior that can occur in the future. Therefore, we strongly argue that the design of a SCADA‐specific IDS that uses SCADA data as well as operating in unsupervised mode, where the labeled data is not available, has great potential as a means of addressing the aforementioned issues. The unsupervised IDS can be a time‐ and cost‐efficient means of building detection models from unlabeled data; however, this requires an efficient and accurate method to differentiate between the normal and abnormal observations without the involvement of experts, which is costly and prone to human error. Then, from observations of each behavior, either normal or abnormal, the detection models can be built.

1.2 EXISTING SOLUTIONS

      A layered defense could be the best security mechanism, where each layer in the computer and network system is provided with a particular security countermeasure. For instance, organizations deploy firewalls between their private networks and others to prevent unauthorized users from entering. However, firewalls cannot address all risks and vulnerabilities. Therefore, an additional security layer is required. The last component at the security level is the IDS, which is used to monitor intrusive activities (Pathan, 2014). The concept of an IDS is based on the assumption that the behavior of intrusive activities are noticeably distinguishable from the normal ones (Denning, 1987). Since the last decade, compared to other security countermeasures, the deployment of IDS technology has attracted great interest from the traditional IT systems domain (Pathan, 2014). The promising functionalities of this technology have encouraged researchers and practitioners concerned with the security of SCADA systems to adopt this technology while taking into account the nature and characteristics of SCADA systems.

      To design an IDS, two main processes are often considered: first, the selection of the information source (e.g., network‐based, application‐based) to be used, through which anomalies can be detected; second, the building of the detection models using the specified information source. SCADA‐specific IDSs can be broadly grouped into three categories in terms of the latter process: signature‐based detection (Digitalbond, 2013), anomaly detection (Linda et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2007; Valdes and Cheung, 2009; Yang et al., 2006; Ning et al., 2002; Gross et al., 2004), and specification‐based detection (Cheung et al., 2007; Carcano et al., 2011; Fovino et al., 2010a; Fernandez et al., 2009). Recently, several signature‐based rules (Digitalbond, 2013) have been designed to specifically detect particular attacks on SCADA protocols. The rules can perfectly detect known attacks at the SCADA network level. To detect unknown attacks at the SCADA network level, a number of methods have been proposed. Linda et al. (2009) suggested a window‐based feature extraction method to extract important features of SCADA network traffic and then used a feed‐forward neural network with the back propagation training algorithm for modeling the boundaries of normal behavior. However, this method suffers from the great amount of execution time required in the training phase, in addition to the need for relearning the boundaries of normal behavior upon receiving new behavior.

      The model‐based detection method proposed in Valdes and Cheung (2009) illustrates communication patterns. This is based on the assumption that the communication patterns of control systems are regular and predictable because SCADA has specific services as well as interconnected and communicated devices that are already predefined. This method is useful in providing a border monitoring of the requested services sand devices. Similarly, Gross et al. (2004) proposed a collaborative method, named “selecticast”, which uses a centralized server to disperse among ID sensors any information about activities coming from suspicious IPs. Ning et al. (2002) identify causal relationships between alerts using prerequisites and consequences. In essence, these methods fail to detect high‐level control attacks, which are the most difficult threats to combat successfully (Wei et al., 2011). Furthermore, SCADA network level methods are not concerned with the operational meaning of the process parameter values, which are carried by SCADA protocols, as long as they are not violating the specifications of the protocol being used or a broader picture of the monitored system.

      Thus, analytical models based on the full system's specifications have been suggested in the literature. Fovino et al. (2010a) proposed an analytical method to identify critical states for specific‐correlated process parameters. Therefore, the developed detection models are used to detect malicious actions (such as high‐level control attacks) that try to drive the targeted system into a critical state. In the same direction, Carcano et al. (2011) and Fovino et al. (2012) extended this idea by identifying critical states for specific‐correlated process parameters. Then, each critical state is represented by a multivariate vector, each vector being a reference point to measure the degree of criticality of the current system. For example, when the distance of the current system state is close to any critical state, it shows that the system is approaching a critical state. However, the critical state‐based methods require full specifications of all correlated process parameters in addition to their respective acceptable values. Moreover, the analytical identification of critical states for a relatively large number of correlated process parameters is time‐expensive and difficult. This is because the complexity of the interrelationship among these parameters is proportional to their numbers. Furthermore, any change in the system brought about by adding or removing process parameters will require the same effort again. Obviously, human errors are highly expected in the identification process of critical system states.

Due to the aforementioned issues relating to analytical methods, SCADA data‐driven methods have been proposed to capture the mechanistic behavior of SCADA systems without a knowledge of the physical behavior of the systems. It was experimentally found by Wenxian and Jiesheng (2011) that operational SCADA data for wind turbine systems are useful if they are properly analyzed to indicate the condition of the system that is being supervised. A number of SCADA data‐driven methods for anomaly detection have appeared in the literature. Jin et al. (2006) extended the set of invariant models by a

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