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Aquatic Sharma (2009) Titanium oxide nanoparticles Multiple Aquatic Turan et al. (2019) Engineered nanoparticles Multiple Aquatic

Data on toxicity of the newer nanoscale inorganic fillers are well under way. Titanium oxide nanoparticles, smaller than 100 nm in diameter, may be toxic to aquatic organisms because of their bioavailability (Sharma 2009). Suspensions of CB nanoparticles causes oxidative stress and activates lysosomal biomarkers in the digestive gland of mussels (Canesi et al. 2010), but the extent to which nanoparticles leach out of polymer nanocomposites is unknown. Estrogenicity of BPA and NP is well documented, but more recently, immunotoxicity their has also been observed in fish (Canesi and Fabbri 2015; Rastgar et al. 2019; Servos 1999). Benzotriazole UV stabilizers changed many immune response genes in zebrafish brain, liver, and embryos, as revealed by transcriptomics (Li et al. 2020). As toxicological tests become more sophisticated, such as rapidly advancing omics research (Liu et al. 2020), and our understanding of chronic, chemical mixtures, and multigenerational effects grows, and toxicological effects may be observed at even lower concentrations.

Table 2.7 Plastic additives that are endocrine‐disrupting compounds.

Additive class	Chemical	Endocrine‐disrupting action
Plasticizers	Phthalates	Anti‐androgenic
Flame retardants	PBDEs	Thyroid disruption
Flame retardants	HBCDs	Thyroid disruption
Antioxidants	Nonylphenol	Estrogenic
Monomers	Bisphenol A	Estrogenic
Monomers	Styrene	Inconclusive
Multiple	Cd, Pb, Zn	Multiple
UV stabilizer	Benzotriazoles	Thyroid disruption

      For ideal risk assessments, the doses, route of exposure, and species used in toxicity tests must be relevant to environmental exposures. Many studies use doses far higher than those found in the environment (Brehm and Flaws 2019). These tests may miss sublethal, chronic effects or U‐shaped dose responses. Toxicology studies on marine species are rare in the literature. Studies that use rats and mice are common and important for assessing mammalian toxicology, but are not relevant to most marine species. The use of freshwater model species, such as D. magna and zebrafish, is more relevant but may not always be the best surrogate for marine organisms (Duran and Beiras 2017). For example, toxicity thresholds of BPA and NP spanned two to three orders of magnitude across saltwater species alone. Current regulatory standards for admissible concentrations in water are often based on freshwater organisms and may not adequately protect marine organisms (Duran and Beiras 2017). More testing is needed on model and nonmodel marine species, like the studies of Duran and Beiras (2017) and Delorenzo et al. (2008).

      A common method for testing the toxicity of mixtures of plastic additives is to expose cells or organisms to leachate from plastic products. Sometimes, but not always, the chemicals are identified in the leachate to understand which could be causing the toxicity. For example, the leachate from three polymers (PVC, PET, and polybutylene adipate co‐terephtalate) in seawater was tested for in vitro estrogenic activity (Kedzierski et al. 2018). Microplastics collected from the North Pacific gyre leached chemicals that were estrogenic in in vitro bioassays, but upon analysis of the leachate they detected estradiol, a natural hormone found in pharmaceuticals but not a plastic additive, indicating that plastics are perhaps absorbing environmental contaminants that may interfere with studies that intend to focus only on plastic additives (Chen et al. 2019).

2.7 NIST Disclaimer

      Certain commercial equipment, instruments, or materials are identified in this paper to specify adequately the experimental procedure. Such identification does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology nor does it imply that the materials or equipment identified are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

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