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Aquatic Sharma (2009) Titanium oxide nanoparticles Multiple Aquatic Turan et al. (2019) Engineered nanoparticles Multiple Aquatic
Additive class Chemical Endocrine‐disrupting action
Plasticizers Phthalates Anti‐androgenic
Flame retardants PBDEs Thyroid disruption
Flame retardants HBCDs Thyroid disruption
Antioxidants Nonylphenol Estrogenic
Monomers Bisphenol A Estrogenic
Monomers Styrene Inconclusive
Multiple Cd, Pb, Zn Multiple
UV stabilizer Benzotriazoles Thyroid disruption

      For ideal risk assessments, the doses, route of exposure, and species used in toxicity tests must be relevant to environmental exposures. Many studies use doses far higher than those found in the environment (Brehm and Flaws 2019). These tests may miss sublethal, chronic effects or U‐shaped dose responses. Toxicology studies on marine species are rare in the literature. Studies that use rats and mice are common and important for assessing mammalian toxicology, but are not relevant to most marine species. The use of freshwater model species, such as D. magna and zebrafish, is more relevant but may not always be the best surrogate for marine organisms (Duran and Beiras 2017). For example, toxicity thresholds of BPA and NP spanned two to three orders of magnitude across saltwater species alone. Current regulatory standards for admissible concentrations in water are often based on freshwater organisms and may not adequately protect marine organisms (Duran and Beiras 2017). More testing is needed on model and nonmodel marine species, like the studies of Duran and Beiras (2017) and Delorenzo et al. (2008).

      A common method for testing the toxicity of mixtures of plastic additives is to expose cells or organisms to leachate from plastic products. Sometimes, but not always, the chemicals are identified in the leachate to understand which could be causing the toxicity. For example, the leachate from three polymers (PVC, PET, and polybutylene adipate co‐terephtalate) in seawater was tested for in vitro estrogenic activity (Kedzierski et al. 2018). Microplastics collected from the North Pacific gyre leached chemicals that were estrogenic in in vitro bioassays, but upon analysis of the leachate they detected estradiol, a natural hormone found in pharmaceuticals but not a plastic additive, indicating that plastics are perhaps absorbing environmental contaminants that may interfere with studies that intend to focus only on plastic additives (Chen et al. 2019).

      Certain commercial equipment, instruments, or materials are identified in this paper to specify adequately the experimental procedure. Such identification does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology nor does it imply that the materials or equipment identified are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

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