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1 Introduction

What is a cyber‐physical system? Why should I study it? What are its relations to cybernetics, information theory, embedded systems, industrial automation, computer sciences, and even physics? Will cyber‐physical systems (CPSs) be the seed of revolutions in industrial production and/or social relations? Is this book about theory or practice? Is it about mathematics, applied sciences, technology, or even philosophy? These are the questions the reader is probably thinking about right now. Definitive answers to them are indeed hard to give at this point. During the reading of this book, though, I expect that these questions will be systematically answered. Hence, new problems and solutions can then be formulated, allowing for a progressive development of a new scientific field.

      As a prelude, this first chapter will explicitly state the philosophical position followed in this book. The chapter starts by highlighting what is spontaneously thought under the term “CPS” to then argue the reasons why a general theory is necessary to build scientific knowledge about this object of inquiry and design. A brief historical perspective of closely related fields, namely control theory, information theory, and cybernetics, will also be given followed by a necessary digression of philosophical positions and possible misinterpretations of such broad theoretical constructions. In summary, the proposed demarcation can be seen as a risk management action to avoid mistakes arising from commonsense knowledge and other possible misconceptions in order to “clear the path” for the learning process to be carried out in the following hundreds of pages.

1.1 Cyber‐Physical Systems in 2020

Two thousand and twenty is a remarkable year, not for the high hopes the number 20‐20 brought, but for the series of critical events that have happened and affected everyone's life. The already fast‐pace trend of digitalization, which had started decades before, has boomed as a consequence of severe mobility restrictions imposed as a response to the COVID‐19 pandemics. The uses (and abuses) of information and communication technologies (ICTs) are firmly established and widespread in society. From dating to food delivery, from reading news to buying e‐books, from watching youtubers to arguing through tweets, the cyber world – before deemed in science fiction literature and movies as either utopian or apocalyptic – is now very concrete and pervasive. Is this concreteness of all those practices involving computers or computer networks (i.e. cyber‐practices) what defines CPSs? In some sense, yes; in many others, no; it all depends on how CPS is conceptualized! At all events, let us move step‐by‐step by looking at nonscientific definitions.

      CPS is a term not broadly employed in everyday life. Its usage has a technical origin and is related to digitalization of processes across different sectors so that the term “CPS” has ended up being mostly used by academics in information technology, engineering, practitioners in industry, and managers. Such a broad concept usually leads to misunderstandings so much so that relevant standardization bodies have channeled efforts trying to establish a shared meaning. One remarkable example is the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) located in the United States. NIST has several working groups related to CPS, whose outcomes are presented on a dedicated website [1]. In NIST's own words,

      Cyber‐Physical Systems (CPS) comprise interacting digital, analog, physical, and human components engineered for function through integrated physics and logic. These systems will provide the foundation of our critical infrastructure, form the basis of emerging and future smart services, and improve our quality of life in many areas.

      Cyber‐physical systems (CPS) will bring advances in personalized health care, emergency response, traffic flow management, and electric power generation and delivery, as well as in many other areas now just being envisioned. CPS comprise interacting digital, analog, physical, and human components engineered for function through integrated physics and logic. Other phrases that you might hear when discussing these and related CPS technologies include:

      As a commonplace when trying to determine the meaning of umbrella terms, the definition of CPS proposed by NIST is still too broad and vague (and excessively utopian) to become susceptible of scientific inquiry. On the other hand, such a definition offers us a starting point, which can be seen as the raw material of our theoretical investigation. A careful reading of the NIST text indicates the key common features of the diverse list of CPSs: