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Africa

      The geographic location of the African continent results in limited access to proper nutrition among individuals. These are further complicated by years of poverty and geopolitical issues within the continent that prevents agricultural activities in the region. For instance, a study of the populations in the North West Province, Southern Africa, showed barely adequate energy and protein intake and low micronutrient intake among the general population. This includes limited access to green vegetables and fruits that are probiotic‐rich needed to cultivate a healthy microbiome [152]. It was also found that children in Africa showed a lower Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and low abundance of Enterobacteriaceae (Shigella and Escherichia) [153]. The dominant genera of Bacteroides of African children comprise xylan‐ and cellulose‐degrading microbes (Prevotella and Xylanibacter) that assist in the digestion of fibrous foods found in tubers like yam and sweet potatoes that are present in the rural African children diet.

      1.2.4.5 South America

      South America adopts a wide variety of dietary patterns. The primary source of polysaccharide in South American diet includes wheat, corn, rice, and tubers. Yucca and bananas are also part of the daily diet in most Latin American countries. Access to a sugar‐rich diet, and low administrative tax on sugar‐sweetened products resulted in quicker absorption of energetics in the human body [154]. This impacts pre‐adolescents and teenagers, in particular, who were in Latin America have shown an estimated overweight prevalence of approximately 7% in children younger than 5 years. This is further complicated by the high intake of cookies, dairy products, and fruit juices [155, 156].

      1.2.4.6 North America

      1.3.1 Infection

      1.3.1.1 Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)

Schematic illustration of dietary perturbation of the microbiome to improve human health. The healthy microbiome results from an equilibrium of host biochemistry and its microbiota (a). During dysbiosis, the population of certain disease-causing microbes increases, resulting in pathogenesis (b). Schematic illustration of protocol of FMT. Stool from healthy donor is screened and tested. The acceptable stool is homogenized and filtered to obtain stool slurry.

      Source: Based on Bakken [166].

      Tremendous amount of research links bacterial dysbiosis in both human and mice showed the depletion of Bacteroidetes and enrichment of Proteobacteria that are linked to a higher risk rate of acquiring CDI [173–176]. The use of FMT to treat CDI showed lower rates of recurrent CDI, leading to the recovery of

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