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8 1 Pillars of Science: Reasons, Knowledge, and Truth1.1 Epistemic Reasons1.2 Reasoning from Evidence1.3 Knowledge and Truth1.4 Facts, Hypotheses, and Theories1.5 Conclusion

9 2 Evidence, Observation, and Measurement2.1 The Promises of Evidence2.2 Basic Evidence and Derived Evidence2.3 Measurement2.4 Conclusion

10 3 Uses of Evidence3.1 From Observation to Hypothesis3.2 Theory Appraisal3.3 The Demarcation Problem3.4 Conclusion

11 4 Evidence, Rationality, and Disagreement4.1 From Weak to Strong Evidence4.2 Evidence and Rationality4.3 Explaining Scientific Disagreement4.4 Conclusion

12 5 The Nature of Probability5.1 Basics of Probability5.2 Interpretations of Probability5.3 Probabilities as Credences5.4 Epistemic Probabilities5.5 Probabilities as Objective Chances5.6 Probabilities and Defeasible Reasoning5.7 Fallacies5.8 Conclusion

13 6 Do Not Be Misled: Confounds and Controls6.1 Trials and Errors6.2 Treatment and Control6.3 Randomization6.4 Conclusion

14 7 Physical Experiments and Their Design7.1 Historical Remarks7.2 Setting Experimental Parameters7.3 Dependent and Independent Variables7.4 Learning from Experiment7.5 Types of Errors: Pick Your Poison7.6 Relationships between Experiment and Theory7.7 Conclusion

15 8 Experimental Methods That They Don’t Teach8.1 Found and Natural Experiments8.2 Thought Experiments8.3 The Structure and Evidential Value of Thought Experiments8.4 Learning from TEs8.5 The Ubiquity of Thought Experiments8.6 Are Computer Simulations Thought Experiments?8.7 Conclusion

16 9 Models: Useful Lies and Informative Fictions9.1 The Nature of Models9.2 Modelling Techniques9.3 Analogies9.4 Learning from Models9.5 Conclusion

17 10 Causation and Causal Inference10.1 What’s the Problem with Causation?10.2 Hume’s Challenge10.3 Causation as Mere Regularities10.4 Conserved Quantities to the Rescue?10.5 Causation and Manipulation10.6 Conclusion

18 11 Strange Causation – Time Travel and Remote Action11.1 On Influencing the Past11.2 Quantum Mechanics and Locality11.3 Conclusion

19 12 But Is Any of It Real?12.1 Theories and Truth12.2 A Map of the Views12.3 Are Groups Real?12.4 Laws of Nature12.5 Is Everything Real Observable?12.6 Realism vs. Antirealism12.7 Structural Realism12.8 Realism and Explanation12.9 Conclusion

20 13 Explanation and Understanding13.1 The Deductive-Nomological Model13.2 The Causal Model13.3 The Unificationist Model13.4 The Pragmatic Model13.5 What about Realism?13.6 Conclusion

21 14 Explanation and Understanding14.1 The Layer Cake Model14.2 Classical Reductionism14.3 Functional Concepts14.4 The Functional Model14.5 Emergence14.6 Interdisciplinary Research14.7 Conclusion

22 15 Scientific Progress15.1 Science and Technology15.2 Goals of Science15.3 Reduction in the Limit15.4 How Theories Are Born15.5 What Kind of Progress?15.6 From Theories to Research Programmes15.7 Methodological Anarchism15.8 Incommensurability15.9 Structural Realism and Progress15.10 Conclusion

23 Index

24 End User License Agreement

List of Figures

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Forms of...

2 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Extrapolation risk.Figure 4.2 What Do You See?...

3 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Newton’s bucket experiment.Figure 8.2 Newton’s spinning globes.Figure 8.3 Low entropy.Figure 8.4 High entropy.Figure 8.5 Maxwell’s “demon”.Figure 8.6 Classification of thought experiments.

4 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Vienna street map...Figure 9.2 Vienna subway map...Figure 9.3 Bohr’s hydrogen model.Figure 9.4 Electron shells...Figure 9.5 Modelling techniques...

5 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 World lines.

6 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Light clocks.Figure 11.2 Spatial curvature.Figure 11.3 Gravitational curvature.Figure 11.4 Light bending.Figure 11.5 Time travel.

7 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Views...

8 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 The Deductive-nomological model.Figure 13.2 The Inductive-statistical model.Figure 13.3 Shadow reckoning.

9 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 AND-gate.

10 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Kuhn’s model...