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Arsenic (As) 0.01 Exposure to arsenic causes skin and internal organ cancers, impaired nerve function, kidney and liver damage, or skin lesions. [34] Copper (Cu) 2.0 Exposure to excess copper induces oxidative stress, DNA damage and reduced cell proliferation in the human body. [35] Iron (Fe) 1.0–3.0 Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin in humans, but its overload causes severe health problems such as liver cancer, diabetes, cirrhosis of the liver, heart diseases and infertility. [36] Manganese (Mn) 0.5 Manganese is an essential nutrient to the body, but in excess can also interfere with the normal function of the nervous system to induce motor and cognitive impairments as well as neuropsychiatric symptoms. [37] Lead (Pb) 0.01 Exposure to lead causes cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, carcinogenicity and genotoxicity in humans. [38] Zinc (Zn) 5.0 Zinc is considered an essential mineral in humans as it is necessary to produce hundreds of enzymes throughout the body. The toxicity of Zn in humans differs significantly and varies from acute exposure to chronic exposure. Renal injury, ranging from asymptomatic hematuria to interstitial nephritis or acute tubular necrosis, has also been reported due to acute toxicity, while chronic exposure can lead to sideroblastic anemia and granulocytopenia, and myelodysplastic syndrome. [39] Rare earth elements (REEs) Data not established and are currently unregulated in humans and environment Despite their extensive application in electronics, exposure to these metals will cause dysfunctional neurological disorders such as reduced intelligence quotient (IQ) in children, bone alteration, genotoxicity and fibrotic tissue injury and antitesticular effects and male sterility in humans. [40]
Types of applications REEs used and their functions Reference
1. Medical (La, Ce, Pr, Gd, Nd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, and Yb) Lanthanum oxide nanoparticles can be used for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).Cerium-doped lutetium orthosilicate is used to convert high-energy radiation to visible light for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. This test is used to reveal tissue and organ function. Praseodymium oxide nanoparticles have been synthesized and used for cancer treatment as a radiotherapy technique.The treatment of skin cancer, as well as hair removal using a laser beam, was achieved by using Neodymium as crystals.The magnetic properties of Gadolinium are used to enhance MRI images of tumors and intravenous radio-contrast agents in MRI scans.A radioisotope Dy-165 has been employed in the treatment of rheumatoid knee effusions.Holmium-based solid-state lasers have been used for non-invasive medical procedures for treating cancers and kidney stones.Erbium-based lasers have been used in medical and dental practice.A radioisotope Tm-167 has been used as a power source in portable X-ray devices.A radioisotope Yb-176 can be used to produce Lu-177, which is known to be a promising radioisotope for medical applications. [41]
Neodymium, terbium, and dysprosium are used in smart cell phones to enable them to vibrate. [42]
3. Electronics Scandium (Sc) is used in electron-beam tubes in TV.Yttrium (Y) is used in the manufacture of capacitors, phosphors, microwave filters, glasses, oxygen sensors, radars, lasers and superconductors.Eu, Tb, Gd, and Ce are used in flat-screen displays. [43]
4. Automobile La, Ce, Nd, and Pr are used as catalytic converters to efficiently control pollution in cars. [44]
5. Weaponry Yttrium(Y) and Terbium (Tb) are used for laser targeting and weapons in combat vehicles. [45]

      1.2.2 Rare-Earth Elements and Their Importance

      1.2.3 Classical AMD Remediation and Treatment Methods

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