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befo...Figure 1.15. The four ring systems of the giant planets and the near satellites....Figure 1.16. Daphnis and its wave on the edge of the Keeler division, inside the...Figure 1.17. Exterior edge of the B ring confined by 2:1 resonance with Mimas an...Figure 1.18. Neptune’s rings seen from the south pole (source: (Pater 2015), tha...Figure 1.19. Occultation of a star by the Chariklo system, observed on June 3, 2...Figure 1.20. Crest of matter on the surface of Iapetus (source: NASA/JPL-Caltech...Figure 1.21. View of Saturn from the Cassini probe in natural colors (as the hum...Figure 1.22. Outer section of Saturn’s A ring with a density wave (DW) and a spi...Figure 1.23. Possible detection by transit of an exo-ring around a planet of the...

      2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. An active comet seen from a distance. The comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp...Figure 2.2. An active comet seen from close up. The comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasime...Figure 2.3. The sungrazing comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) as seen by the Soho space coro...Figure 2.4. D/1973 F2 (Shoemaker-Levy 9), the comet (if it is one) that was dest...Figure 2.5. The nuclei of the comets observed by space missions, represented at ...Figure 2.6. The impact of the Deep Impact probe on the nucleus of 9P/Tempel 1 on...Figure 2.7. The “neck” of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, in the region connect...Figure 2.8. Changes on the surface of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko detected by Rose...Figure 2.9. Studies of the nucleus of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko: geome...Figure 2.10. Sublimation rate for some molecules of cometary ices, as a function...Figure 2.11. The evolution of production rates for different molecules observed ...Figure 2.12. Velocity of expansion and temperature of the atmosphere for a comet...Figure 2.13. Examples of the profiles of molecular lines observed by radio. For ...Figure 2.14. Photolytic process in a cometary atmosphereFigure 2.15. Examples of cometary spectra showing the lines of several moleculesFigure 2.16. Water vibration bands observed in infrared by the ISO satellite in ...Figure 2.17. Cometary molecules observed remotely using spectroscopy and their a...Figure 2.18. An example of mass spectra: molecules from the water family observe...Figure 2.19. The composite spectrum from visible to UV for the comet 103P/Hartle...Figure 2.20. The D/H ratio observed in cometary water. Many of the measurements ...Figure 2.21. The dynamics of a dust tail. The synchrones are in red and the synd...Figure 2.22. A picture of the comet 2P/Encke obtained at a wavelength of 11.5 μm...Figure 2.23. The spectrum in the mid-infrared of the comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)...Figure 2.24. Traces of dust grains from the comet 81P/Wild collected in aerogel ...Figure 2.25. Two grains of cometary dust collected by Rosetta/Cosima from 67P/Ch...Figure 2.26. The disconnection of the plasma tail from Halley’s comet on March 1...Figure 2.27. Portrait of Giuseppe Piazzi and the cover of his book announcing th...Figure 2.28. The main belt and the Trojan asteroids (source: Wikimedia Commons)....Figure 2.29. The main families of asteroids (source: Wikimedia Commons). For a c...Figure 2.30. (a) Hildas (black dots) and Trojans (gray dots) seen from the plane...Figure 2.31. Orbits of the asteroids after which we name the groups of “planet c...Figure 2.32. The light curve of an asteroid makes it possible to determine its r...Figure 2.33. The shape of several objects encountered by space probesFigure 2.34. (a) Map of the relief of the south pole of (4) Vesta. (b) The walls...Figure 2.35. The three rubble-pile asteroids explored by the JAXA space missions...Figure 2.36. Representative absorption spectra (between 0.45 µm and 2.45 µm) of ...Figure 2.37. Spectra of Vesta and the HED meteorites (source: based on (Ferrari ...Figure 2.38. Position of the trans-Neptunian asteroids on January 5, 2019. For a...Figure 2.39. Sequence of photos that allowed D. Jewitt and J. Luu to discover 19...Figure 2.40. Image of the classic KBO (486958) Arrokoth (source: NASA/JHU/APL/SW...Figure 2.41. Spectra of several trans-Neptunian objects (indicated by their numb...Figure 2.42. Aggregate of small grains in the Orgueil meteorite (source: (Mukhop...Figure 2.43. The dwarf planets (source: based on NASA images). For a color versi...Figure 2.44. The dwarf planet Ceres: in the center of the photo (false colors), ...Figure 2.45. Internal structural model of Ceres. Ceres probably has a solid core...Figure 2.46. The mountain Ahuna Mons, on Ceres, seen in simulated perspective; t...Figure 2.47. The dwarf planet Pluto (source: NASA/JHU/APL/SWRI). For a color ver...Figure 2.48. Craters and mountain chains on Pluto. (a) Most of the craters in th...Figure 2.49. Location of some structures on the surface of Pluto (source: NASA/J...Figure 2.50. The five satellites of Pluto (source: NASA/JHU/APL/SWRI)Figure 2.51. Charon and its surface (source: NASA/JHU/APL/SWRI). For a color ver...

      3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. One of the stones found near Chelyabinsk; this stone is broken and t...Figure 3.2. Average number of objects colliding with Earth’s atmosphere each yea...Figure 3.3. Surface of the moon riddled with impact craters; the large crater th...Figure 3.4. Fragment of chondrite from Bremervörde (sample MNHN no. 108, 2.6 cm ...Figure 3.5. (a) Cut and polished slice of the Boguslavka iron meteorite (sample ...Figure 3.6. Diagram of planetary accretion and differentiation. For a color vers...Figure 3.7. Main groups of meteorites. These groups are subdivided into a number...Figure 3.8. The chemical composition of chondrites. For a color version of this ...Figure 3.9. Overview and detailed view of two CV3 chondrites. For a color versio...Figure 3.10. Thin sections of four primitive chondrites seen in transmitted ligh...Figure 3.11. The matrix of primitive carbonaceous chondrites contains presolar g...Figure 3.12. The proportions and sizes of different chondritic components (matri...Figure 3.13. Variations in relative concentration of ¹⁶O, ¹⁷O, and ¹⁸O in groups...Figure 3.14. Isotopic signatures in Ti, Cr, and O divide meteorites into two mai...Figure 3.15. The eucrites and Vesta. For a color version of this figure, see www...Figure 3.16. Widmannstätten pattern of iron meteorites. For a color version of t...Figure 3.17. (a) View from a scanning electron microscope of a rocky fragment of...Figure 3.18. Determination of the age of zircons in the Martian impact breccia N...Figure 3.19. The main steps of the formation of the Solar System from an interst...

      4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1. Alignment of the planets and the Moon in mid-April 2020, observed fr...Figure 4.2. Parameters of the ellipse (source: based on (Shields et al. 2016))Figure 4.3. Gravitational forces between Earth and the Moon. For a color version...Figure 4.4. Orbital coordinates in three-dimensional space. Z indicates north (s...Figure 4.5. Conic sections (source: based on (Murray and Dermott 2000))Figure 4.6. Circular restrained three-body problem (source: based on (Marzari et...Figure 4.7. Two bodies in 2:1 resonance; the outer body revolves once around the...Figure 4.8. An example of integration of planetary orbits from -10 to 15 billion...Figure 4.9. (a) Evolution of the obliquity of the Earth and (b) of sunlight expo...Figure 4.10. (a) Attraction of a (non displayed) satellite on the surface (black...Figure 4.11. Assessment of forces acting on a mass m at a frame linked to the pl...Figure 4.12. Ratio between radiation pressure and gravitational force as a funct...Figure 4.13. Possible scenario for the initial evolution of the Solar System in ...Figure 4.14. Process of the formation of Jupiter. The red curve is the mass of s...Figure 4.15. Possible scenario for the evolution of giant planets formed in a di...Figure 4.16. Proportion of open star clusters surrounded by massive protoplaneta...Figure 4.17. Image of the disk of the young star DoAr 44 with surrounding dust (...Figure 4.18. Type 1 migration of a planet of terrestrial mass in a protoplanetar...Figure 4.19. Evolution of giant planets in the presence of a disk of planetesima...Figure 4.20. (a) Comparison of the sizes of planets in the Kepler-90 system and ...

      5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1. Temperature decrease in the oceans since 3.5 billion years ago, shor...Figure 5.2. Formation of a peptide link between two amino acids. R₁ and R₂ are c...Figure 5.3. Example of a structural fragment of DNA formed by four nucleotides c...Figure 5.4. An example of a fragment of the DNA double helixFigure 5.5. Formula for a typical phosphoglyceride. Group 1 is choline, group 2 ...Figure 5.6. Structure of lipid layers. For a color version of this figure, see w...Figure 5.7. Diagram representing Carl Woese’s tree of life (1928–2012)Figure 5.8. Possibilities of life on Mars, Earth, and Venus. For a color version...Figure 5.9. The surface of Europa is covered with cracks, as shown in this image...Figure 5.10. Enceladus and two fragments of the rings of Saturn, seen backlit by...Figure 5.11.

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