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personal knowledge of the church being addressed. Consider the sentence: “for surely you have already heard of the commission of God’s grace that was given me for you . . .” (Eph. 3:2). Such a statement sounds odd considering that Paul was, according to the account in the Book of Acts, a founder of the Ephesian church. Thus, even if there might be questions about the historicity of the

      Acts narrative, it is quite suggestive that Paul spent considerable time in Ephesus — up to three months, perhaps making use of a local academy for his teaching and preaching ministry. If as Acts suggests, Ephesus was a center for Paul’s ministry then not only would the Ephesians know of his calling, but even his successors would likely have been familiar with that congregation (Acts 19). What is true of Ephesians is also true of the Colossian letter, which appears to be an earlier draft of the letter, or at the very least the Ephesian letter appears to be based on the earlier Colossian epistle. This letter follows the same outline as Colossians, but makes modifications that further develop the ideas present in the

      earlier letter.

      Whether or not Paul is the author, we do not have much if any information about the recipients. This means that we will read it differently than we might the Corinthian letters, which are full of details that are rooted in the addressed community. The sense of context here is very different from these more specific letters.

      Pseudonymity and the Bible

      Many modern readers find the idea of pseudonymity to be problematic. The idea of a nom de plum is a well understood practice, but writing in the name of a famous person seems unseemly, even fraudulent. The very first syllable is off putting, for “pseudo” means, for us, falsity. Indeed, for me to write a book under the name of a famous theologian, such as Karl Barth, would lead to charges of producing a forgery. How can we accept this text as offering words of truth if it emerges from a false identity. Modern western squeamishness with pseudonymity isn’t something that is shared by every culture, including many cultures living in the early centuries of the Christian era.

      It was common practice and considered perfectly acceptable to write a book in the name of another person. Solomon, for example, is the attributed author of most of the Proverbs, while many of the Psalms are attributed to David. There is also a book attributed to Daniel — who may or may not have been a historical figure —

      that was written several centuries after the era described. Then we have the various authors whose work comprises the book of Isaiah. Within the New Testament, we know that the gospels were written anonymously, with authorship attributed to the books by later tradition — probably in the second century. At least one, if not both, of the Petrine letters are pseudonymous, as is true of Jude. Among the letters attributed to Paul, the only undisputed letters are those addressed to the Romans, the two Corinthian epistles, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. There is also a whole range of pseudonymous literature that stands outside the biblical canon, but like the canonical texts the reason for writing under the name of a famous person is that the name carried with it a certain sense of authority. As for the letters written in the name of Paul, most scholars believe that the authors represent a theological school of thought that is linked to the person named. Thus, the author of the Ephesian letter is seeking to represent to a second generation church the tradition of Paul’s theology.

      One of the questions that lies behind the debate over authorship is the identity of Paul. Especially in regard to issues relating to women and to slavery, the Ephesian letter, along with Colossians and the three pastoral letters, seem to have a more rigid or conservative sense to them. This more culturally rigid position seems to stand in contrast to what one finds in the Galatian letter or even the Corinthian letters. By removing Paul from authorship of these discomforting texts, Paul begins to look more progressive (see the arguments in Borg and Crossan, 29-58).

      The occasion for writing the letter

      The letter can be broken into two parts, a theological section and a practical one. More specifically, it is a “hortatory discourse,” with the first half offering praise to God for the grace provided so that the recipients — likely Gentiles — might experience salvation in Jesus Christ, while in the second half of the letter (chapters four through six) the author offers encouragement to the readers, that they might persevere through difficult times that lie ahead. In this sense, it is written to address the questions raised by a community of believers who are transitioning from a Gentile (Greek) background into a Christian faith that is deeply rooted in Jewish theological and ethical categories. In the early chapters you have this strong sense that the recipients once were persons subject to God’s wrath because of how they lived according to the passions of their flesh (2:1-3). But now, through Christ they have a new identity: They are heirs with Christ and members of Christ’s body (3:5-6), having established their new identity in Christ, and therefore there are certain expectations for their lives.

      Starting in chapter 4, we turn to matters of church life and personal life. We begin with questions of giftedness and church leadership, and then turn to the rules or commands that will guide their new life in Christ. From there the author moves to what is often called the “Household Code,” a series of instructions that address marriage, parent-child relationships, and slave-master relationships. This section has proven to be extremely controversial in the modern era, especially with regard to the instructions about women and slaves. Finally, the author addresses the difficulties and struggles that lie ahead and the need to be equipped for “battle.”

      OPENING GREETING (1:1­2)

      In the first lesson our exposure to the text of Ephesians is limited to the first two verses, which provide the opening greeting. These opening lines are suggestive of a letter, but the greeting is both brief and rather impersonal. It is worth noting that unlike many of the undisputed Pauline letters, no other person is mentioned as contributing to the letter. As noted earlier, the phrase “in Ephesus” is missing from many manuscripts, leading to the conclusion that this was a circular letter sent to many churches, and that it originally may have had a blank space left so as to put in the name of the church receiving the message. That is, it awaits mail merge. The closing section is equally brief, making few personal comments, which is very different from the typical Pauline letter.

      DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

      1 Discuss the components present in a typical personal letter. What would you expect to find in one? How would a personal letter differ from a circular letter, one sent to a variety of recipients?

      2 Compare the opening and closing verses of Ephesians (1:1-

      3 2; 6:21-24) with the opening and closing verses of 1 Corinthians (1:1-9; 16:5-21). What differences do you see and what do they tell you about the relationship that the author has with the recipient of the letter?

      4 Pushing further, consider the difference of response evoked by a letter from a former pastor of a congregation, perhaps the founding pastor, and that brought on by a pastoral letter from the head of a denomination — a bishop or president. In what ways might you receive the word differently?

      5 Because there is debate as to the identity of the author of this letter, with many scholars suggesting that the letter was written after Paul’s death in Paul’s name by an associate of Paul’s, how do you feel about the idea of pseudonymity? If this letter is pseudonymous, does that knowledge change how you read and use the letter? Would knowing that it was common practice to write under a pseudonym affect the way you read the text?

      6 The letter addresses the recipients as “saints . . . who are faithful in Christ Jesus.” What does it mean to be a saint? Do you consider yourself a saint? If so, why? If not, why not?

      EXERCISE

      Read through the Ephesian letter two to three times and then construct a brief outline that shows the flow of the text. Keep in mind the direction that the author is taking the reader.

      HISTORICAL/THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION

      We read the Bible at a number of different levels, from the literal to the spiritual. How we read the text and understand depends in part on both our starting point and the way the text presents itself to us. One of the most creative interpreters of Scripture was Origen, one of the earliest Christian theologians

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