LITMIR.BIZ

      JESSICA GORDON NEMBHARD

      COLLECTIVE

       COURAGE

      A HISTORY OF

       AFRICAN AMERICAN

       COOPERATIVE

       ECONOMIC THOUGHT

       AND PRACTICE

      THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS

      UNIVERSITY PARK, PENNSYLVANIA

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Gordon Nembhard, Jessica, 1956– , author.

      Collective courage : a history of African American cooperative economic thought and practice / Jessica Gordon Nembhard.

      p. cm

      Summary: “Chronicles the achievements and challenges of African American collective economic action and social entrepreneurship in the struggle for civil rights and economic equality”—Provided by publisher.

      Includes bibliographical references and index.

      ISBN 978-0-271-06216-7 (cloth : alk. paper)

      1. African Americans—Economic conditions.

      2. Cooperative societies—United States—History.

      3. Cooperation—United States—History.

      I. Title.

      E185.8.G674 2014

      330.90089’96073—dc23

      2013042173

      Copyright © 2014 The Pennsylvania State University

      All rights reserved

      Printed in the United States of America

      Published by The Pennsylvania State University Press,

      University Park, PA 16802-1003

      The Pennsylvania State University Press is a member of the Association of American University Presses.

      It is the policy of The Pennsylvania State University Press to use acid-free paper. Publications on uncoated stock satisfy the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Material, ANSI Z39.48–1992.

      This book is printed on paper that contains 30% post-consumer waste.

      To Curtis Haynes Jr.

      for vision, pioneering work, collegiality, and friendship.

      He asked some of the original questions and planted the seed.

      And to my children,

      Stephen Milete A. Nembhard and

      Susan Rosa A. Gordon Nembhard,

      for being genuinely interested, embracing the vision, and yet

      again allowing me to be so distracted. Susan Rosa, also, for

      designing several versions of a cover for this book.

      Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction: A Continuous and Hidden History of Economic Defense and Collective Well-Being

PART I: EARLY AFRICAN AMERICAN COOPERATIVE ROOTS

1 Early Black Economic Cooperation: Intentional Communities, Communes, and Mutual Aid

2 From Economic Independence to Political Advocacy: Cooperation and the Nineteenth-Century Black Populist Movement

3 Expanding the Tradition: Early African American–Owned “Cooperative” Businesses

PART II: DELIBERATIVE COOPERATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

       4 Strategy, Advocacy, and Practice: Black Study Circles and Co-op Education on the Front Lines

       5 The Young Negroes’ Co-operative League

       6 Out of Necessity: The Great Depression and “Consumers’ Cooperation Among Negroes”

       7 Continuing the Legacy: Nannie Helen Burroughs, Halena Wilson, and the Role of Black Women

       8 Black Rural Cooperative Activity in the Early to Mid-Twentieth Century

       PART III: TWENTIETH-CENTURY PRACTICES, TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY SOLUTIONS

       9 The Federation of Southern Cooperatives: The Legacy Lives On

       10 Economic Solidarity in the African American Cooperative Movement: Connections, Cohesiveness, and Leadership Development

       Time Line of African American Cooperative History, 1780–2012: Selected Events

       Notes

       References

       Index

Acknowledgments

      This has been more than a ten-year project and has taken up much of my academic career. Therefore, almost everyone in my life has had to hear about the book or wait on me while I reedited or submitted yet another version. Most of the public presentations I have made have been about the book, so many audiences have listened patiently as I talked about the project. Many people have expressed kind interest in this book, and I’ve received several offers of book parties. So there are many people to thank. If I have forgotten anyone, please blame it on aging and overwork, and not on intentional oversight. This has been a cooperative effort.

      Heartfelt thanks—for faith and friendship and for always believing that the book would be finished and would be great—go out to many people in my life, especially the following:

      J. JEROME HUGHES (“How can I help to make sure the book gets done?”)—for myriad small and large gestures and tasks, free research assistance, and editorial advice.

      DOMINIC MOULDEN—for moral support and for reading the entire manuscript at least once!

      AJOWA NZINGA IFATEYO—for always providing information and insight, support, and especially ideas for promotion and dissemination.

      CURTIS HAYNES—for inspiring me to ask the question, for eternal intellectual inquiry, and for modeling the praxis.

      MOUSSA WALKER FOSTER—for faith, genuine interest, research, and editing.

      TOM PIERSON—for adding my interests to yours and always sharing your great research.

      MELINDA CHATEAUVERT—for indescribable generosity in sharing personal research that provided essential historical perspective on the Ladies’ Auxiliary.

      CLYDE WOODS—for incredible insights, wisdom, and historical perspective, and for introducing me to the cooperative side of Fannie Lou Hamer.

      FAYE WILLIAMS—for always asking about the book and reminding me of my priorities.

      I am indebted to my family

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