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the higher gods.

      It is not surprising that we find a variety of viewpoints concerning embodiment among followers of Plato. As Dominic O’Meara points out, these philosophers had to contend with an apparent contradiction within the writings of Plato regarding how and why the soul comes to be embodied. According to O’Meara, the Timaeus suggests that the soul “had a constructive mission in the world to vivify, organize, and perfect it.”¹⁰² The Phaedrus, on the other hand, relates the story of the winged soul, which, “due to some moral failure,” has “fallen from the heavenly retinue of the gods and was plunged into a life of misery in the body.”¹⁰³ Plotinus resolved this contradiction by positing that the soul “always retained in part its presence in the intelligible world from which it came.”¹⁰⁴ Hence, for Plotinus, the soul does not fully descend into matter. Iamblichus, however, supported a view of the soul as fully descended. He resolved the same contradiction by positing different orders of souls. He divides souls between those “that are in close contemplative union with true intelligible being and are companions (sunapadoi) and akin to the gods, and those souls who, already before the descent to the material world, are morally corrupt.”¹⁰⁵ The former can “preserve their freedom and purity from the body,” and as a result they can “purify, perfect, and ‘save’ the material world.”¹⁰⁶ The latter descend for “moral improvement and punishment.”¹⁰⁷ For Iamblichus, it was the role of those souls descending for the benefit of others, that is, true theurgists, to know how to lead others along the right path to moral correction and salvation.

      Given this soteriological aspect of Iamblichus’s theurgic program, it is not surprising that his criticisms of Porphyry’s questions and philosophical views are often pointed. He frequently represents his former teacher as naïve and confused. But there was a great deal at stake for both participants in this debate. As already noted, Porphyry was concerned that philosophers avoid demonic pollution, and he considered participation in animal sacrifice to be an impediment to the salvation of the philosopher’s soul. Iamblichus, on the other hand, was more generally concerned about the salvation of all souls and the role cultic practices played in the soteriological process. The question of the nature of evil daemons and their association with blood served as a flash point in the disagreement between the two Platonists.

      Iamblichus and Porphyry on Evil Daemons and Blood Sacrifice

      Throughout significant portions of On the Mysteries, Iamblichus chides Porphyry for the latter’s apparent failure to understand the nature of daemons, both good and evil, as well as that of other kinds of spiritual beings. In Book 1, Iamblichus presents Porphyry as baffled about whether gods and daemons have bodies and precisely how they relate to their corporeality.¹⁰⁸ But the main bone of contention between the two on the matter of daemons arises in Book 5. There, Iamblichus takes issue with Porphyry’s assertion that some spirits “are ensnared by the vapors of, in particular, blood sacrifices.”¹⁰⁹ Iamblichus places this statement about evil daemons beside Porphyry’s other assertions about the way in which terrestrial vapors nourish heavenly bodies, in order to critique Porphyry’s view that deities, and specifically daemons, somehow depend on humans for nourishment. Iamblichus writes:

      For it is surely not the case that the creator has set before all living creatures on sea and land copious and readily available sustenance, but for those beings superior to us has contrived a deficiency of this. He would not surely, have provided for all other living things, naturally and from their own resources, an abundance of the daily necessities of life, while to daemons he gave a source of nourishment which was adventitious and dependent on the contributions of us mortals, and thus, it would seem, if we through laziness or some other pretext were to neglect such contributions, the bodies of daemons would suffer deprivation, and would experience disequilibrium and disorder.¹¹⁰

      Here Iamblichus appears to misunderstand Porphyry; whether willfully or not, we cannot be certain.¹¹¹ As mentioned earlier, Porphyry held the view that the pneumatic vessel associated with celestial and sublunary spirits is nourished by vapors, but he in no way makes the well-being of the deities and daemons themselves dependent on these vapors or on sacrifices. Evil daemons, in identifying with their material aspect, seek to feed that aspect through blood and smoky vapors. However, this is a perversion of the proper relationship between soul and pneumatic vessel; this is indeed “disequilibrium and disorder.” The details of Iamblichus’s and Porphyry’s respective views on the vehicle of the soul are not of primary importance here, but Iamblichus casts the debate in these terms, taking issue with Porphyry’s interpretation of blood sacrifice as polluting and demonic.

      Iamblichus himself does not have much to say on the nature of evil daemons and other maleficent spirits. He is generally far less preoccupied with their existence and nature, and unlike Porphyry, he does not have a speech about how they related to good daemons. He also attributes less responsibility to them for cosmic evil than does Porphyry. In general, Iamblichus engages with questions about evil in the context of discussing proper and improper ritual. Evil arises when a soul attempts to put certain portions of the universe into contact with other parts in such a way that it violates cosmic harmony. In other words, when one uses the natural sympatheia and philia built into the fabric of the cosmos improperly, phantoms, delusions, false images, and distorted epiphanies can arise. And in the context, in particular, of faulty “theurgic” or divinatory practices of this sort, evil daemons, those who have identified with the realm of generation, are able to deceive human beings and direct them to unjust ends. By this, Iamblichus means those ends that disrupt cosmic harmony, supplanting divine philia with the illusion of divine contact, ends that perpetuate the disunity that is part of the realm of generation.

      For instance, in Book 3, Iamblichus responds to Porphyry’s assertion that there are some who, by standing on “magical characters,” are “filled with spiritual influence.”¹¹² Iamblichus counters that when these amateur ritualists seek to employ such dubious divinatory techniques for questionable ends, all kinds of things can go awry. Instead of calling forth the presence of the gods, Iamblichus argues, such practices “produce a certain motion of the soul contrary to the gods,” and draw from them “an indistinct and phantom-like appearance which sometimes, because of the feebleness of its power, is likely to be disturbed by evil daemonic influences.”¹¹³ In such instances, the gods, given their generous nature, are inclined to respond out of friendship. But because they have been invoked or petitioned in the wrong fashion, they respond commensurately with a sort of second-rate epiphany. Thus, improper divinatory techniques, faulty theurgy we might say, put the ritualist at risk of falling prey to these spirits. This is the extent to which Iamblichus engages with questions about evil daemons and their cosmic effects and activities. And it is telling that his focus is on proper ritual, the main bone of contention with Porphyry.

      To return, then, to the main point, contrary to Porphyry’s view that blood sacrifices propitiate and feed evil spirits, Iamblichus asserts that all sacrifices are divinely ordained.¹¹⁴ And these ordained practices work in such a way as to affirm and strengthen the bonds of philia and sympatheia established by gods, heroes, daemons and other good spirits with human souls. When humans perform divine rites, they activate relationships already built into the fabric and order of the cosmos. According to Iamblichus, each cosmic level has its appropriate set of rituals.¹¹⁵ In the case of blood sacrifices, these rites do not propitiate evil daemons, rather they are the “perfect sacrifice” for those “material gods” (ὁι ὑλάιοι) who “embrace matter within themselves and impose order on it.”¹¹⁶ Iamblichus writes, “And so, in sacrifices, dead bodies deprived of life, the slaughter of animals and the consumption of their bodies, and every sort of change and destruction, and in general processes of dissolution are suitable to those gods who preside over matter.”¹¹⁷

      These animal sacrifices help and heal the worshipper who is constrained by the body and suffers accordingly. They also aid in the release of the soul from its attachment to the body. Indeed, Iamblichus argues that human beings are frequently involved with gods and good daemons who watch over the body, “purifying it from long-standing impurities or freeing it from disease and filling it with health, or cutting away from it what is heavy or sluggish.”¹¹⁸

      Iamblichus

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