LITMIR.BIZ

      Artist Edward Percy Moran’s 1912 painting “By Dawn’s Early Light” depicts Francis Scott Key viewing the American flag flying over Fort McHenry after a British attack.

      Who were the War Hawks?

      The War Hawks were a group of Republicans in the U.S. Congress who advocated war with Great Britain. Elected in 1810, the congressmen took office in 1811, the failure of the Erskine agreement fresh in their memories. That bit of 1809 diplomacy, arranged by British minister to the United States George Erskine and the then-U.S. Secretary of State James Madison (1751–1836), would have provided for the suspension of Britain’s maritime practices that interfered with U.S. shipping, but the agreement fell apart when Erskine was recalled from office. The relationship between the United States and Great Britain—tenuous since 1807 due to trade embargoes and the impressment of American sailors into British service—deteriorated. The newly elected Congressmen were tired of the failure of diplomacy to resolve maritime problems with the British. They further felt the British were challenging the young United States through their policies, which purportedly included British aid to American Indians in the Northwest. War Hawk leader Henry Clay (1777–1852) was named Speaker of the House, and Congress soon passed a series of resolutions to strengthen the Army and Navy. When President James Madison called upon Congress to declare war on the British in June 1812, the War Hawks swung the close vote. Some historians believe the true motive behind the War Hawks’s actions was not resolution of the shipping problems but rather the desire to annex parts of southern Canada to the United States.

      What was future president William Henry Harrison’s role during the War of 1812?

      Harrison was promoted to major general and given authority over all military forces in the Northwest Territory. He battled both Indian forces—including Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa—and the British. In October 1813, he won the Battle of the Thames over Indian forces. This battle increased Harrison’s fame, making him a national figure even more than the Battle of Tippecanoe.

      Who was Tecumseh?

      Tecumseh (1768–1813) was the leader of the Shawnee, who was involved in clashes with the Americans in the Ohio Valley. He rose to prominence by 1800 and partnered with his religious leader brother, Tenskwatawa, to create a formidable confederacy of American Indian tribes. Tecumseh and his brother founded Prophetstown, Illinois, in 1808 and rebelled against the Americans in Tecumseh’s War, which essentially ended with the Shawnee loss to Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. Tecumseh, however, continued his resistance against the Americans by allying with the British during the War of 1812. Tecumseh helped the British capture Fort Detroit, but in 1813 the Americans enjoyed a decisive victory at the Battle of the Thames in Canada, and Tecumseh was killed on October 5, 1813.

       Who said, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours”?

      Captain Oliver Hazard Perry (1785–1819) wrote the famous words in a letter to General William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) after defeating the British at the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. An improvised U.S. squadron commanded by Captain Perry, just twenty-eight years old, achieved the victory in the War of 1812 battle. The message he sent to Harrison (later the ninth U.S. president) was: “We have met the enemy, and they are ours: two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.” Perry received a gold medal and thanks from Congress for the victory.

      What was future President Zachary Taylor’s role during the War of 1812?

      Taylor—then a captain—successfully defended Fort Harrison with a group of fifty men from a Tecumseh-led force of more than four hundred men in the War of 1812. The event is sometimes called the “Siege of Fort Harrison.” His success earned him the rank of Brevet Major, the first time this honor was ever awarded. The designation “brevet” signified that an officer displayed particular courage during military service.

      What happened to the nation’s capital during the War of 1812?

      British forces overran Washington, D.C., burning both the White House and the U.S. Capitol. General William Winder, whom Madison had appointed as commander in charge of defending the capital, did an inadequate job in preparing the area’s defenses. Madison had to flee the city after hearing from General Winder of the oncoming British invasion.

      Which member of Madison’s Cabinet lost his job as a result of the burning of the Capitol?

      Secretary of War John Armstrong received blame for the poor defense of the Capitol during the War of 1812. Armstrong resigned under pressure in September 1814, essentially as the scapegoat for the British burning of the capital city. President James Monroe served as both secretary of war and secretary of state.